A. Theoretical Background 1. Bilingualism
7. Conversation
a. Definition of Conversation
Conversation is interactive communication between two or more people.
The conversation is the most powerful container for functional users of discourse
42 D. R. Sihite, “Code Mixing and Code Switching Used by English Lectures at Jambi University,” A Thesis Proposal (2016)
rules or rules. Conversation can be interpreted as oral training in the use of language obtained from learning grammar and vocabulary. The truth lies in the competence of the conversation, which has various analytical models in the structure of the conversation. Therefore, conversation studies need to be well understood and studied seriously to display conversational competence in everyday speech acts.
Richardt argues that the conversation is a face-to-face oral interaction between two or more participants.43 However, a conversation is much more than an exchange of information. When people participate in it, they enter into the process of the conversation, the assumptions and expectations about the conversation, how the conversation develops, and the kind of contribution they are expected to make.
According to Ismari in the book 'About Conversation,' when people join in a conversation, they share general principles that allow them to mutually interpret the utterances they produce.44
Hymes uses the term speech events or language events to refer to actions that are directly guided by the conventions of conversational users. The conversation is an example of a speech event whose norms may be separated from other speech events, such as lectures, arguments, discussions, religious rituals, judicial trials, interviews, debates, and meetings.
Purba explained that the conversation was more than just a series of exchanges.45 The conversation consists of exchanges of conversations initiated and interpreted based on intuitively understood and generally required rules and norms of conversational cooperation. Conversely, it can also be manipulated to create
43 A. Bengar Hrp, ”Model Pasangan Bersesuaian (Adjacency Pair) Dalam Struktur Percakapan Bahasa Jerman” ()
44 Ismari, Tentang Percakapan (Surabaya: Airlangga University Press, 1995)
45 A. Bengar Hrp, ”Model Pasangan Bersesuaian (Adjacency Pair) Dalam Struktur Percakapan Bahasa Jerman”
broad meanings above the level expressed directly by the utterances in the conversation.
b. Type of Conversation
When talking to someone, knowing what type of conversation to follow can be helpful. Someone can do it based on the direction of the informal communication (one-way or two-way street) and the tone/purpose (competitive or cooperative). If you're in a one-way conversation, you're talking to someone, not to someone. If you're in a two-way conversation, the participants listen and talk. In a competitive conversation, people are more concerned with their perspectives, whereas, in a cooperative conversation, participants are interested in the perspectives of everyone involved. Based on direction and tone, conversations are grouped into four types: debate, dialogue, discourse, and diatribe.
1) Debate
Debate is a competitive, two-way conversation. The objective is to win an argument or persuade someone, such as the opposing player or observers, from a third party. For example, two family members from opposite sides of the political spectrum argue politics.
2) Dialogue
Dialogue is a cooperative, two-way conversation. The objective is for individuals to share knowledge and develop connections. For example, two undecided voters talking to each other about the candidates, trying to figure out who they want to vote for.
3) Discourse
Discourse is a cooperative, one-way conversation. The objective is to convey information from the speaker/author to the audience/readers. For example, a professor giving a lecture on international affairs.
4) Diatribe
Diatribe is a competitive, one-way conversation. The purpose is to convey feelings, intimidate those who disagree with you, and/or motivate those who share the same viewpoint. For example, a disgruntled voter venting about the election’s outcome.46
Table 2.5 Type of Conversation
It is vital to recognize the discussion you are having since it dictates the talk's aim. If you can determine the objective, you can speak more effectively to the core of the dialogue. However, if you incorrectly identify the discussion you are in, you may encounter conversational problems.
c. Structure of Conversation
According to Clark & Clark, conversations begin with simple sentences, such as 'Hello,' 'Goodbye,' and so on. Each participant starts a conversation with a more specific purpose, and vice versa for other participants with the same goal. The problem that we must understand is how to unite the goals. The conversation has some structures, including:
46 https://davidwangel.com/the-opportune-conflict/2016/12/28/the-four-types-of-conversations- debate-dialogue-discourse-and-diatribe (accessed on January 12, 2023)
1) Turn Talking
If the participants involved in the conversation are to have common goals, they must implicitly agree with the conversational method used. The main requirements for this method are:
a) Each participant must have the opportunity or turn to speak.
b) Only one person should speak at a time (he (the other participant) can listen).
c) The difference in turns must be clear (efficient)
d) The speaker's message and the contents of the message they convey should not be wrong at the beginning of the conversation.
e) There are techniques for deciding who to talk to and when.
This requirement is a system of a conversational turn so that the conversation goes from one person to the next in its entirety. The problem of setting conversation turns, according to Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson in Clark & Clark, based on habit there are three rules:
a) Rule 1. The next turn goes to the person addreessed by the current speaker.
b) Rule 2. The next turn goes to the person who speaks first.
c) Rule 3. The next turn goes to the current speaker, if he resumes before anyone else speaks.
These three rules must be met. The first rule takes priority, then the second and third rules. And the second rule takes priority after that, only the third rule. These three rules must be used in conversation terms.
2) Adjacency Pairs
The first rule links significant proportions in exchange, whereby a speaker conveys to a second person, and a second person responds. The two
exchange are carried out alternately in pairs. Couples that appear can vary, such as:
a) Question-answer b) Greeting-greeting
c) Offer-acceptance/rejection d) Assertion-acknowledgment e) Compliment- acceptance/rejection f) Request-grant
Pairs themselves are organized into larger divisions serving global destinations. This partner helps to open the conversation, negotiate the relationship of facts, exchange topics, and close the conversation. This becomes important when there is explicit criticism from other speakers.
3) Conversation Opening
To start a conversation, one person must gain the other's attention and signal a desire for conversation, and the other person must demonstrate a willingness to be part of it. The thing this aims for is a call-answer sequence (summons-answer sequencei). Example: one person says, 'hey, Bill,' and another says, 'yes.'
4) Closing Conversation
It is still a complicated thing for the conversation closing process. To provide solution to this complexity, according to Sacks and Schegloff, there are two main stages in closing a conversation. First, A and B agree to close the conversation. Second, they close the conversation in the first stage. That this is the most difficult problem and is solved by the use of other conversational tools: pre-closing statements and responses, when this is appropriate, the statement begins with the closing part of the conversation, ending with a
classic exchange of stops, such as 'Goodbye,' again that partners have a major role in keeping the conversation going smoothly.47