Discussion - Examining the Role of Mobile Media in Public Engagement with GMO Foods Among Chin

Examining the Role of Mobile Media in Public Engagement with GMO Foods Among Chinese

6.5 Discussion

The aim of this study is twofold—to examine the formation of public opinion about GMO in China , which is subject to the infl uence of positive media coverage of GMO; and to explore whether and how mobile media infl uence GMO attitudes in China. Results fi rst revealed the irrational nature of public opinion toward GMO in China . While Chinese consumers were aware of the general benefi ts that GMO brings to the society at large, they were reluctant to eat or buy GM foods for its risks which appear to be more personal, tangible, and essential. In addition, mobile media were found to be important channels for Chinese consumers to acquire GMO

GMO knowledge

Attitudes toward

GMO (.16) Mobile

media use Self-efficacy

(.01)

Elaborative processing

(.04)

.20*** -.12**

.36***

-.04

.09*

.11**

-.02

Fig. 6.2 Path analysis of the effects of use of mobile media for GMO information on attitudes toward GMO

6 Examining the Role of Mobile Media in Public Engagement…

116

information. This study analyzed the mediating role of GMO knowledge, self-effi - cacy and elaborative processing in linking media consumption and science attitudes.

GMO knowledge was found to be a non-signifi cant mediator of the media effects on attitudes toward GMO. Instead, fi ndings showed that the informational use of mobile media for GMO would affect self-effi cacy and elaborative processing, which in turn shape attitudes toward GMO.

This study has shed light on the participatory nature of mobile media in facilitat- ing civic engagement . Exposure to mobile news and user-generated mobile tweets is conducive to public engagement with controversial scientifi c issues like GMO, though the effect may not be seen directly and immediately (as shown by the indi- rect path). This fi nding corresponds with Wei’s study ( 2014 ) that ascertains the positive role of mobile media in fostering civic discourse engagement in China . Bodmer ( 1985 ) argues that support for science as a social institution, along with acceptance of science and technology, is considered paramount to the successful functioning of democracy . Truly, especially with the advent of mobile phones, science is no longer regarded as an apprenticeship for future professional life as scientists, but as a powerful domain that can be accessed by broader audiences for citizenship in China.

This study is also one of the fi rst empirical attempts that have highlighted the important role of mobile media in promoting science communication. It differenti- ated mobile media from the general media in assessing their impact on public attitudes toward GMO. Recent developments in mobile technologies have combined telephone and wireless Internet connection with some of the functionality of personal computers. As a personal technology, mobile phones are portable, adaptable to an individual’s abilities, available anywhere and easy to use. These attributes facilitate science learning and decision-making in settings less formal than schools and universities and lead to changes to the access to and interactions in science communication.

Nonetheless, mere exposure to science messages presented in an immediate, spontaneous, and interactive format does not guarantee a change of attitudes toward scientifi c issues. Findings of this study suggest that the underlying mechanism of media effects on attitudes toward GMO is more complex than a direct link between media consumption and attitudinal or behavioral change. Our fi ndings show that self-effi cacy and elaborative processing mediated the relationship between mobile media use and public attitudes toward GMO. Specifi cally, GMO information acquired through mobile media can inspire Chinese consumers to feel confi dent about their ability in decision-making, which further leads to their favorable attitudes toward GMO. Similarly, GMO messages obtained from mobile media can motivate Chinese consumers to elaborate on the information. However, the more they engage in the elaboration process, the less likely they would accept GMO.

The negative association between elaborative processing and attitudes toward GMO which is inconsistent with previous studies (e.g., Ho et al. 2013 ; Wei and Lo 2008 ) merits further discussion. This may stem from the controversial or uncertain nature of GM technology. So far, the scientifi c evidence is lacking or confl icting, the fi ndings are tentative or uncertain, and the pros and cons are yet to be clarifi ed even by scientists. People who are capable of sophisticated information processing (e.g.,

N. Wen et al.

117

comparing information received from different sources and at different times and comparing the pros and cons in greater details) are more likely to be on the err side and reject GMO until they receive clearer signals from scientifi c research. Some scholars (e.g., Corner et al. 2012 ; Ding et al. 2011 ) suggest that communication of such uncertainty and controversies can raise skepticism about science and under- mine the willingness of lay people to support scientifi c innovation and policies, especially among those who have a higher level of knowledge (Jallinoja and Aro 1999 ). In this scenario, the more people are exposed to this controversial debate of GMO in the media, the more likely they would engage in elaboration of the possible harmful consequences, and thus the more likely they would oppose the application of GM technology in food production.

Despite several important fi ndings, a discussion of this study includes a few caveats. First, the study was conducted at a single point in time; some cautions should be exercised in making causal inferences. It is plausible that elaborative processing would induce media consumption of GMO messages. Thus, longitudinal data or other approaches are required to disentangle the causal order of the variables and address fully the extent to which media consumption has a lasting infl uence on public attitudes toward GMO. Second, though the main purpose of the current study is not model development, it is still valuable to explore, in addition to self-effi cacy and elaborative processing, other mechanisms (e.g., trust, Frewer et al. 2003 ) that underlie the relationship between media consumption and public attitudes toward GMO.

Furthermore, fi ndings of this study offer some practical implications for communication practitioners and educators. To ensure public acceptance of a certain scientifi c fi nding or an emerging technology, journalists are encouraged to highlight the benefi ts while maintaining a reasonable balance between benefi ts and risks in their reporting. This helps individuals with strong elaborative ability to focus on the advantages, rather than to be distracted by uncertain evidence and uncorroborated potential risks. In addition, future science literacy programs should also be employed to help the public form awareness of scientifi c uncertainty, which is an inherent feature of science. Such contemporary understanding of science is an important determinant of public acceptance of complex uncertain scientifi c statements, such as GMO (Rabinovich and Morton 2012 ). Undoubtedly, mobile media that provide mobility and portability, facilitate user-generated, interactive content, and make complex science topics appealing and relevant will become a good device for the purpose of science communication and civic engagement .

References

Abraham, R. (2007). Mobile phones and economic development: Evidence from the fi shing indus- try in India. Information Technologies and International Development, 4 (1), 5–17.

Adam, B., & Van Loon, J. (2000). Introduction: Repositioning risk; the challenge for social theory.

In B. Adam, U. Beck, & J. Van Loon (Eds.), The risk society and beyond: Critical issues for social theory (pp. 1–31). London: Sage.

6 Examining the Role of Mobile Media in Public Engagement…

118

Agha, S. (2003). The impact of a mass media campaign on personal risk perception, perceived self-effi cacy and on other behavioural predictors. AIDS Care, 15 (6), 749–762.

Anderson, J. R. (1990). Cognitive psychology and its implications . San Francisco: WH Freeman/

Times Books/Henry Holt & Co.

Anderson, J. R., & Reder, L. M. (1979). An elaborative processing explanation of depth of processing. Levels of processing in human memory, 104 , 385–403.

Anderson, A. A., Scheufele, D. A., Brossard, D., & Corley, E. A. (2012). The role of media and deference to scientifi c authority in cultivating trust in sources of information about emerging technologies. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 24 (2), 225–237.

Augoustinos, M., Crabb, S., & Shepherd, R. (2010). Genetically modifi ed food in the news: Media representations of the GM debate in the UK. Public Understanding of Science, 19 (1), 98–114.

Bäckstrand, K. (2003). Civic science for sustainability: Reframing the role of experts, policy- makers and citizens in environmental governance. Global Environmental Politics, 3 (4), 24–41.

Balzano, J. (2014). Amidst public controversy China debates GMO development . Retrieved October 11, 2015, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/johnbalzano/2014/10/25/

amidst-public-controversy-china-debates-gmo-development/

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-effi cacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84 (2), 191.

Batrinou, A. M., Dimitriou, E., Liatsos, D., & Pletsa, V. (2005). Genetically modifi ed foods: The effect of information. Nutrition & Food Science, 35 (3), 148–155.

Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity . London: Sage.

Besley, J. (2010). Current research on public perceptions of nanotechnology. Emerging Health Threats Journal, 3 , e8.

Bodmer, T. (1985). The public understanding of science . London: Royal Society.

Brossard, D., & Nisbet, M. C. (2007). Deference to scientifi c authority among a low information public: Understanding US opinion on agricultural biotechnology. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 19 (1), 24–52.

Brossard, D., & Scheufele, D. A. (2013). Science, new media, and the public. Science, 339 (6115), 40–41.

Chaffee, S. H., & Schleuder, J. (1986). Measurement and effects of attention to media news.

Human Communication Research, 13 (1), 76–107.

Chow, J., Klein, E. Y., & Laxminarayan, R. (2010). Cost-effectiveness of “golden mustard” for treating vitamin A defi ciency in India. PloS One, 5 (8), e12046.

Clark, F., & Illman, D. L. (2001). Dimensions of civic science: Introductory essay. Science Communication, 23 (1), 5–27.

Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences . Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

Corner, A., Whitmarsh, L., & Xenias, D. (2012). Uncertainty, scepticism and attitudes towards climate change: Biased assimilation and attitude polarisation. Climatic Change, 114 (3–4), 463–478.

Ding, D., Maibach, E. W., Zhao, X., Roser-Renouf, C., & Leiserowitz, A. (2011). Support for climate policy and societal action are linked to perceptions about scientifi c agreement. Nature Climate Change, 1 (9), 462–466.

Drew, D., & Weaver, D. (1990). Media attention, media exposure, and media effects. Journalism

& Mass Communication Quarterly, 67 (4), 740–748.

Du, L., & Rachul, C. (2012). Chinese newspaper coverage of genetically modifi ed organisms.

BMC Public Health, 12 (1), 326.

Erdogan, M., Özel, M., Uşak, M., & Prokop, P. (2009). Development and validation of an instru- ment to measure university students’ biotechnology attitude. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18 (3), 255–264.

Eurobarometer. (2010). Europeans and biotechnology in 2010: Winds of change?. Retrieved July 21, 2016, from http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_341_winds_en.pdf

N. Wen et al.

119 Evans, G., & Durant, J. (1995). The relationship between knowledge and attitudes in the public

understanding of science in Britain. Public Understanding of Science, 4 (1), 57–74.

Eveland, W. P. (2001). The cognitive mediation model of learning from the news evidence from nonelection, off-year election, and presidential election contexts. Communication Research, 28 (5), 571–601.

Eveland, W. P. (2002). News information processing as mediator of the relationship between motivations and political knowledge. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79 (1), 26–40.

Eveland, W. P., Jr., & Dunwoody, S. (2000). Examining information processing on the World Wide Web using think aloud protocols. Media Psychology, 2 (3), 219–244.

Eveland, W. P., Shah, D. V., & Kwak, N. (2003). Assessing causality in the cognitive mediation model a panel study of motivations, information processing, and learning during campaign 2000. Communication Research, 30 (4), 359–386.

Finke, M. S., & Kim, H. (2003). Attitudes about genetically modifi ed foods among Korean and American college students. AgBioforum, 6 (4), 191–197.

Frewer, L. J., Scholderer, J., & Bredahl, L. (2003). Communicating about the risks and benefi ts of genetically modifi ed foods: The mediating role of trust. Risk Analysis, 23 (6), 1117–1133.

Funk, C., & Rainie, L. (2015). Public and scientists’ views on science and society . Retrieved

October 11, 2015, from http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/

public-and-scientists-views-on-science-and-society/

Greenpeace. (2012). China says “no” to genetically engineered rice . Retrieved October 11, 2015, from http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/features/China-says-no-to-genetically- engineered-rice/

Gunter, B., Clifford, B. R., & McAleer, J. L. (1997). Learning from multi-topic science pro- grammes on mainstream television. Zeitschrift für Individual and Massenkommunikation, 9 , 3–23.

Haji-Mahmoodi, M., Montazeri, A., Jarvandi, S., Ebrahimi, M., Haghighat, S., & Harirchi, I.

(2002). Breast self-examination: Knowledge, attitudes, and practices among female health care workers in Tehran, Iran. The Breast Journal, 8 (4), 222–225.

Harlander, S. K. (2002). The evolution of modern agriculture and its future with biotechnology.

Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 21 (3), 161S–165S.

Ho, S. S., Scheufele, D. A., & Corley, E. A. (2013). Factors infl uencing public risk–benefi t consid- erations of nanotechnology: Assessing the effects of mass media, interpersonal communication, and elaborative processing. Public Understanding of Science, 22 (5), 606–623.

Holzinger, A., Dorner, S., Födinger, M., Valdez, A. C., & Ziefl e, M. (2010). Chances of increasing youth health awareness through mobile wellness applications. In G. Leitner, M. Hitz, &

A. Holzinger (Eds.), HCI in work and learning, life and leisure (Lecture notes in computer science, Vol. 6389, pp. 71–81). Berlin: Springer.

Huang, J., Qiu, H., Bai, J., & Pray, C. (2006). Awareness, acceptance of and willingness to buy genetically modifi ed foods in Urban China. Appetite, 46 (2), 144–151.

Jallinoja, P., & Aro, A. R. (1999). Does knowledge make a difference? The association between knowledge about genes and attitudes toward gene tests. Journal of Health Communication, 5 (1), 29–39.

Jensen, R. (2007). The digital provide: Information (technology), market performance, and welfare in the South Indian fi sheries sector. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122 (3), 879–924.

Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1996). LISREL 8: User’s reference guide . Chicago: Scientifi c Software International.

Lapan, H. E., & Moschini, G. (2004). Innovation and trade with endogenous market failure: The case of genetically modifi ed products. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 86 (3), 634–648.

Lee, C. J., & Niederdeppe, J. (2011). Genre-specifi c cultivation effects lagged associations between overall TV viewing, local TV news viewing, and fatalistic beliefs about cancer prevention.

Communication Research, 38 (6), 731–753.

6 Examining the Role of Mobile Media in Public Engagement…

120

Lee, C. J., & Scheufele, D. A. (2006). The infl uence of knowledge and deference toward scientifi c authority: A media effects model for public attitudes toward nanotechnology. Journalism &

Mass Communication Quarterly, 83 (4), 819–834.

Li, Q., Curtis, K. R., McCluskey, J. J., & Wahl, T. I. (2002). Consumer attitudes toward genetically modifi ed foods in Beijing, China. AgBioforum, 5 (4), 145–152.

Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. (2010). Balancing opportunities and risks in teenagers’ use of the internet: The role of online skills and internet self-effi cacy. New Media & Society, 12 (2), 309–329.

Magnusson, M. K., & Hursti, U. K. K. (2002). Consumer attitudes towards genetically modifi ed foods. Appetite, 39 (1), 9–24.

Mares, M. L., Cantor, J., & Steinbach, J. B. (1999). Using television to foster children’s interest in science. Science Communication, 20 (3), 283–297.

Martin, C. (2014). Zambian cotton farmers benefi t from scratch cards. Appropriate Technology, 41 (2), 45–46.

Mayer, R. E. (2003). The promise of multimedia learning: Using the same instructional design methods across different media. Learning and Instruction, 13 (2), 125–139.

McCliskey, J., & Wahl, T. (2003). Reacting to GM foods: Consumer response in Asia and Europe.

IMPACT highlights. International Marketing Program for Agricultural Commodities and Trade , College of Agriculture and Home Economics, Washington State University.

Miller, J. D. (1998). The measurement of civic scientifi c literacy. Public Understanding of Science, 7 (3), 203–223.

Miller, J. D. (2004). Public understanding of, and attitudes toward, scientifi c research: What we know and what we need to know. Public Understanding of Science, 13 (3), 273–294.

Millstone, E., Brunner, E., & Mayer, S. (1999). Beyond “substantial equivalence”. Nature, 401 (6753), 525–526.

Moseley, B. E. (2002). Safety assessment and public concern for genetically modifi ed food products: The European view. Toxicologic Pathology, 30 (1), 129–131.

Nayga, R. M., Fisher, M. G., & Onyango, B. (2006). Acceptance of genetically modifi ed food:

Comparing consumer perspectives in the United States and South Korea. Agricultural Economics, 34 (3), 331–341.

Nisbet, M. C., Scheufele, D. A., Shanahan, J., Moy, P., Brossard, D., & Lewenstein, B. V. (2002).

Knowledge, reservations, or promise? A media effects model for public perceptions of science and technology. Communication Research, 29 (5), 584–608.

Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion . New York:

Springer.

Prokop, P., Lešková, A., Kubiatko, M., & Diran, C. (2007). Slovakian students’ knowledge of and attitudes toward biotechnology. International Journal of Science Education, 29 (7), 895–907.

Rabinovich, A., & Morton, T. A. (2012). Ghosts of the past and dreams of the future the impact of temporal focus on responses to contextual ingroup devaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38 (3), 397–410.

Rimal, R. N. (2001). Perceived risk and self‐effi cacy as motivators: Understanding individuals’

long-term use of health information. Journal of Communication, 51 (4), 633–654.

Sampei, Y., & Aoyagi-Usui, M. (2009). Mass-media coverage, its infl uence on public awareness of climate-change issues, and implications for Japan’s national campaign to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Global Environmental Change, 19 (2), 203–212.

Sarewitz, D. (2000). Human well-being and federal science. What’s the connection? In D. Kleinmann (Ed.), Science, technology, and democracy (pp. 87–102). New York: SUNY Press.

Schmidt, J. A., Shumow, L., & Kackar, H. (2007). Adolescents’ participation in service activities and its impact on academic, behavioral, and civic outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36 (2), 127–140.

Slovic, P. E. (2000). The perception of risk . London: Earthscan publications.

N. Wen et al.

121 Southwell, B. G., & Torres, A. (2006). Connecting interpersonal and mass communication: Science

news exposure, perceived ability to understand science, and conversation. Communication Monographs, 73 (3), 334–350.

Tabashnik, B. E. (2010). Communal benefi ts of transgenic corn. Science, 330 , 189–190.

Uzunboylu, H., Cavus, N., & Ercag, E. (2009). Using mobile learning to increase environmental awareness. Computers & Education, 52 (2), 381–389.

Weber, P. S., Weber, J. E., Sleeper, B. R., & Schneider, K. L. (2004). Self-effi cacy toward service, civic participation and the business student: Scale development and validation. Journal of Business Ethics, 49 (4), 359–369.

Wei, R. (2008). Motivations for using the mobile phone for mass communications and entertain- ment. Telematics and Informatics, 25 (1), 36–46.

Wei, R. (2014). Texting, tweeting, and talking: Effects of smartphone use on engagement in civic discourse in China. Mobile Media & Communication, 2 (1), 3–19.

Wei, R., & Lo, V. H. (2008). News media use and knowledge about the 2006 US midterm elections:

Why exposure matters in voter learning. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20 (3), 347–362.

Westlund, O. (2013). Mobile news: A review and model of journalism in an age of mobile media.

Digital Journalism, 1 (1), 6–26.

Wolfenbarger, L. L., & Phifer, P. R. (2000). The ecological risks and benefi ts of genetically engineered plants. Science, 290 (5499), 2088–2093.

Xia, M. (2014). Chinese consumers’ attitude towards genetically modifi ed foods: Taking genetically modifi ed soybean oil as an example. Journal of Food Processing & Technology, 5 (12), 1.

Xu, W. (2013). Social media helping ease public’s fears of GM foods . Retrieved October 11, 2015, from http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2015-08/10/content_21541820.htm

Yap, C. (2013). It’s China vs. China in genetically modifi ed food fi ght . Retrieved October 11, 2015, from http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2013/09/03/its-china-vs-china-in-gmo-food-fi ght/

Zhao, X. (2009). Media use and global warming perceptions a snapshot of the reinforcing spirals.

Communication Research, 36 (5), 698–723.

Zukin, C., Keeter, S., Andolina, M., Jenkins, K., & Delli Carpini, M. X. (2006). A new engage- ment? Political participation, civic life, and the changing American citizen . New York: Oxford University Press.

6 Examining the Role of Mobile Media in Public Engagement…

123

R. Wei (ed.), Mobile Media, Political Participation, and Civic Activism in Asia, Mobile Communication in Asia: Local Insights, Global Implications,

DOI 10.1007/978-94-024-0917-8_7

Dalam dokumen Mobile Media, Political Participation, and Civic Activism in Asia (Halaman 125-132)