SECTION III Service Systems
10.2 Discussion of Success Factors
Emphasize Business Objectives
For an ergonomics program to sustain itself over the long term, it must be anchored to business objectives.
The best way to do this is to ensure that its results improve the business objectives of the organization.
There is a progression in the types of results achieved, as shown in Figure 10.1. Most ergonomics applications are initially targeted toward the elimination of major injuries, and then minor injuries become important. Once injuries are under control, the emphasis should shift to improving performance in the areas of productivity and quality, and eventually, improvements in the quality of worklife should occur. A successful ergonomics program will, as soon as practical, ensure that business objectives are improved, documented, and shared with management.
This may be difficult to do because many ergonomists only see ergonomics as a technology and not as a business enhancement tool. In business, however, technology is a tool to achieve business objectives.
Unfortunately, when ergonomics is applied primarily as a technology without firm business goals, the results rarely amount to more than training and scattered job analyses.
FIGURE 10.1 Progression of the results of ergonomics projects.
Fortunately, though, when ergonomics is viewed as a tool which helps drive important business measures, it continues to be important over an extended time period, and will be retained. However, when ergonomics is seen either as an “add-on” with little business value or as a “must do” from a compliance standpoint, an ergonomics program will only be mildly supported and eventually discontinued.
Avoid Too Many Low-Value/High-Cost Solutions
Cost is or soon becomes an issue for most ergonomics programs. When costs are too high relative to the value received, the ergonomics program is regarded as a money pit and is stopped or slowed down (see Figure 10.2).
Expensive solutions usually result from a misunderstanding of the role of people and equipment such as an “automation mentality” which requires that automation be used to remove the person totally from the job. In the office area, many office ergonomists go on a “chair buying binge” and spend too much on new seating with correcting the hand/wrist problems common in office areas.
Typically, these problems result from less experienced ergonomists who have difficulty creating low- cost solutions that address the root cause. Many ergonomists have developed skills to identify and analyze ergonomics problems. Unfortunately, if they have not developed skills for the efficient resolution of those problems, the result can easily be overly expensive solutions.
When the common solution for ergonomics problems is to “automate the job,” a single solution can be very costly, often in the range of $100,000 to $1,000,000. It is difficult to offset this high cost with the benefits gained, and this gives management the perception that ergonomics is (and always will be) prohibitively expensive. It does not take management long to tire of these types of “low-value/high-cost solutions.” And once that occurs, the ergonomics program usually has a short future.
An example can illustrate this concept. Suppose that a material handling problem has been uncovered, and the question is how to resolve it. A less experienced ergonomist might use automation, when other alternatives such as scissors-lifts, spring-loaded levelers, and turntables are available. Typically, an admin- istrative control is also considered, and one might even add the consideration of back belts to the decision.
For many lifting situations, simply getting the lift to correct height and close to the body will resolve the problem. The two-dimension matrix in Figure 10.3 easily shows where the value/cost benefit lies.
Figure 10.4 provides a generic view of the value cost matrix and how to assess different solutions for their own value/cost relationship.
Ensure That Ergonomics Projects Are Evaluated Quantitatively
Only the most successful ergonomics programs have instituted a systematic method for quantitatively evaluating individual ergonomic projects. Ergonomic projects should be evaluated for both ergonomic improvement and for cost/benefits. The degree of ergonomic improvement can be measured by changes in such lagging indicators as incident rate, severity rate, or losses for workers’ compensation. It is also
FIGURE 10.2 The money pit.
10-4 Occupational Ergonomics: Design and Management of Work Systems
possible to use leading indicators such as a symptoms survey or pain/discomfort body parts survey. It is best to use these surveys more than once, and a suitable timetable for surveys is based on “Dave’s Rule of Twos” — perform a survey after the changes have been implemented for two days, then again after two weeks, and finally, after two months.
In addition, each ergonomics project should also be evaluated financially. The costs and benefits can be measured for each project. These dollar figures for costs and benefits can be translated into net overall improvement for all the ergonomics projects, or a cost/benefit ratio for each project can be maintained.
Each project does not have to pay off, but, overall, the program should be able to pay for itself.
These basic items can become part of composite measures such as those listed below:
• Cumulative stress reduction (CSR) index — Index of stress reduction × number of people affected
• Cumulative stress reduction per $1,000 — Ratio of CSR index to costs
One additional project evaluation measure which has created a lot of interest is the time to complete each project. Usually this is just the elapsed time from the day the ergonomic project is initiated until the recommended solution is implemented. If the ergonomic problem-solving skills are increasing, then the time to complete individual projects should be decreasing.
Maintain a Tabulation of the Cost of Projects
Cost is an important issue for many ergonomics programs and one additional method of cost measure- ment is valuable. Since so many projects are incorrectly assumed to be overly expensive, a simple tabulation of the costs of a number of projects can help dispel the notion that all projects must be costly.
Table 10.1 shows the costs of 29 ergonomics projects completed by Auburn Engineers in late 1994 and early 1995. The interested reader will note that about half of these project solutions cost less than $500 per project. Most of these projects (98%) cost less than $5,000.
Tracking costs like this places an emphasis on the low-cost (yet effective) solutions, and it sends a clear and simple message to ergonomic problem solvers. The message is “solve the problem, but spend as little money as possible. If we save money on one project, then we have more left for additional projects.”
FIGURE 10.3 Possible solutions for a material handling problem.
FIGURE 10.4 Avoid too many low-value/high-cost solutions.
Use Resources Efficiently (the Self-Help/Skilled-Help/Expert-Help Strategy) A successful ergonomics program will ensure that it uses resources as efficiently as possible. The major costs are personnel and hardware. Hardware costs were outlined above. Personnel costs can be controlled by delegating the ergonomics problems to the correct skill level. Too many ergonomists get involved in projects that do not require their level of skill, and which they should delegate to others.
Efficient problem solving uses a stratification based on the difficulty of problems using three levels called self-help problems, skilled-help problems, and expert-help problems. For most organizations, the number of self-help problems is the largest. Following is a list of the three types of problem-solving groups, a brief description of each type, and the training required:
• Self Help. Self help is the lowest cost method to resolve an ergonomic problem. Self help also requires the lowest level of problem-solving skill. Self-help solutions are usually generated by a worker along with his or her supervisor. Awareness training provides the workers with the neces- sary skills to determine the self-help solutions by familiarizing them with symptoms of muscu- loskeletal disorders, workplace risk factors, and ways to reduce risk factors.
• Skilled Help. This is the second lowest cost method of problem-solving help. Skilled help typically involves a problem-solving team comprised of workers who have had ergonomics problem-solving training. Awareness training is inadequate to perform at this level.
• Expert Help. Expert help is provided by an expert ergonomist, typically a corporate ergonomist or an outside ergonomics consultant. This is the most expensive level of help and should be utilized for problems that are too difficult to solve or go beyond the knowledge and skill of the other two help levels.
A summary is shown in Table 10.2.
TABLE 10.2 Efficiently Using Problem-Solving Skills
Skill Level Self-Help Problems Skilled-Help Problems Expert-Help Problems
Occurrence 50–70% of problems 20–40% of problems 5–15% of problems
Typical problem Simple and “Quick Fix”
problems
Multiple workplace changes or complex diagnosis
Most complex problems, unique problem, complex multi-part solution, expensive solutions Typical solution Adjust workplace, proper pace,
use proper tools, awareness of early warning symptoms
Workstation redesign, modification of production process, new assembly tools
Unique tool, design of entire factory, redesign of production process
Expertise With minor training, can be resolved by many people
Requires training, practice and possible guidance
Requires special expertise or professional judgment Typical training 2–4 hours of ergonomics
awareness training
2–3 days of team-based ergonomics problem solving
Graduate degree plus professional experience
10-6 Occupational Ergonomics: Design and Management of Work Systems
Identify and Overcome Barriers
Successful ergonomics programs identify and overcome barriers to their success. There are many barriers which occur with any new initiative, and to be successful, the barriers must be identified, resolved, and eliminated. Unsuccessful ergonomics programs will either be stopped by these barriers, or will be over- come by them. There are four typical barriers within an ergonomics program as shown in Table 10.3. In addition, some typical methods to overcome these barriers are also listed.
It is important to address barriers to the success of the ergonomics program early and often. The most successful programs will address barriers during the initial strategic planning, and will discuss barriers during each planning session. Once the barriers are identified, corrective actions are planned and imple- mented, and follow-up is done to ensure that the barriers are not impeding progress with installation.
Training Should Be Supported by Suitable Infrastructure
Training is a valuable part of an ergonomics program, but it can be done before the organization is ready for it. One important objective of an ergonomics program is to ensure that people are aware of the signs and symptoms of musculoskeletal disorders. General awareness training of these disorders is an appro- priate way to meet that need. But what happens too often is that this awareness training occurs much too early in the program. Once this training takes place, many ergonomic concerns quickly come to the surface — some very important, but many of less significance. The dilemma is that each situation should be evaluated reasonably soon or the ergonomics program loses credibility. When an operator recognizes an ergonomics problem and asks for help, there is a limited amount of time before the worker suspects that ergonomics is just another management fad.
When numerous situations surface at once, particularly if the ergonomics program is new, there are insufficient resources to deal with everything in a timely manner. This creates a big problem for the ergonomics program — too many requests, not enough time, and lots of frustration, discontent, and loss of credibility.
This is clearly a situation which a successful ergonomics program should avoid, and the recommen- dation is to wait for the ergonomics program to mature a bit and develop a suitable infrastructure of people with some basic skills prior to conducting widespread training. An organization which has performed passive or active surveillance is well aware of the more serious problems anyway, and is probably already dealing with them. Therefore, little is lost by waiting to perform training, and the ergonomics program will avoid generating substantial negative publicity and discontent.
TABLE 10.3 Four Typical Barriers
Barriers Methods to Overcome Barrier
Not enough time • Determine “Top Five” or “Dirty Dozen” problem areas
• Avoid “paralysis by analysis”
• Enable others and get them involved
• Buy additional time
Too little money • Use low-cost/high-value solutions
• Use nickel and dime solutions
• Avoid cost/benefit justification
• Cluster projects
• Get “refillable pot” of funds
• Use two-step solutions
Gaps in skills • Provide specific training (and only as needed)
• Look for existing solutions (remember worker modified solutions)
• Use teams for simple problems and experts for difficult problems Management concerns • Propose a specific plan
• Answer the 5 questions managers ask
• Develop an ergonomics culture
• Understand change management
Clearly Define the Purpose of Your Ergonomics Program
The successful ergonomics program has a clearly defined objective. Programs which flounder and fail have unclear objectives. Programs which have been put in place to “do ergonomics” will likely fail relatively quickly. Defining the objectives may take the form of a mission statement or vision statement. Typically, vision statements are longer than mission statements, and “paint a picture of what life will be like at some point in the future.” Some examples are provided in Tables 10.4 and 10.5.
TABLE 10.4 Examples of Mission Statements
Mission Statement Comments/Observations
Example #1 Positive Points
The Ergonomics Committee will develop systems for the multi-disciplinary study of the problems that exist between people, the tools and machinery they use and their work environment. These systems will initially focus on reducing injuries/illnesses related to cumulative trauma disorders of the upper extremities and backs by hazard prevention and control, medical management, and training/education. This will lead to an increased level of comfort at work, improved quality of product, and greater productivity. This mission will be obtained with management support and associate involvement.
1. Takes ergonomics beyond injury/illness into quality and productivity
2. Will not do all the work itself, but will develop systems for …
Areas of Concern 1. Overemphasis on CTDs 2. Somewhat long
3. Mentions how this will be achieved which may be unnecessary
Example #2
The Ergonomics Committee will develop and manage systems for the improvement of the conditions between people, tools, machinery, and their work environment.
Positive Points 1. Short
2. Will develop systems for…
Areas of Concern
1. When is the mission completed?
Example #3
The ergonomics program provides education, analysis, and guidance to prevent and alleviate ergonomically related stress and illness in order to protect the health, and further, the productivity of the plant.
Positive Points 1. Mentions prevention 2. Relatively short Areas of Concern
1. The program should set up systems to provide… because when the program ends ergonomics will be part of the culture 2. Ergonomics can go beyond stress and illness
(it is not just CTDs) Example #4
To put into place the will and skill to eliminate and/or prevent ergonomics problems (pain, illness, injuries), and to capture quality and efficiency benefits so that ergonomics becomes institutionalized.
Positive Points
1. Will put into place … 2. Relatively short
3. … becomes institutionalized Areas of Concern
1. A little wordy 2. Stilted language
10-8 Occupational Ergonomics: Design and Management of Work Systems
Plan the Stages of the Ergonomics Culture Change
Successful ergonomics programs are guided by a knowledge of organizational culture change models.
There is a body of knowledge generally titled “change management” which deals with change in organi- zations. One especially helpful part of this technology is that it outlines the steps which must be followed before commitment to successful organizational change occurs. As the ergonomics program matures, it goes through six distinct stages, each with separate concerns and issues. The six stages, using layman’s language, are:
1. Awareness that a change is necessary (e.g., injuries are excessive) 2. Acceptance of ergonomics as a tool that can help
3. Trial using ergonomics to see if it works 4. Regular use of ergonomics because it does work 5. Procedures written to include ergonomics
6. And finally, a culture that is totally supportive of the use of ergonomics
These stages are outlined in Table 10.6, along with brief comments about some key issues.
TABLE 10.5 Examples of Vision Statements Example Vision Statement
Vision Statement #1
The vision was addressed from two different time frames — long term and over the next 12 months. Both are important because they provide the framework necessary to build the appropriate program.
Long Term
• Ergonomics is part of our culture. We don’t think about it separately any more.
• Ergonomics improves safety and health, improves plant performance (worker productivity, product quality, cost control) and improves the quality of worklife (QWL) of workers.
• Ergonomics is used before as well as after injuries/illnesses occur. Prevention is common.
• All aspects of human performance are considered part of ergonomics, including such issues as heat, stress, and human error.
Within One Year
• Ergonomics will be more commonplace with a great deal more awareness. There will be successful projects completed, ergonomics reviews of new designs, supervisors evaluation of jobs, and illness investigation procedures.
• Ergonomics will still be primarily a safety and health issue.
• The plant will be addressing all known problems.
• The major areas of emphasis will be cumulative trauma disorders along with manual material handling type injuries.
Vision Statement #2
The program will undergo a change in focus and activities. The focus will go from pain reduction to maximizing effectiveness on the job. Maximizing effectiveness on the job includes all aspects of performance, such as a safe and healthy workplace, the ability to produce high quality goods, highly productive workplaces that don’t waste time and energy of the workers, and high quality of worklife.
Ergonomics is one of several tools used to maximize effectiveness on the job.
During and after the transition, there will be technical ergonomic resources available to the plants for projects and for auditing assistance. Auditing for ergonomic concerns will become part of normal auditing procedures used for other safety and health audits.
Vision Statement #3
The guiding principles involved with this organization are:
• to push problem solving down to the working level in the organization,
• to spread ergonomics throughout the organization by heavily involving others,
• to avoid making ergonomics an “overlay” that just adds work, and
• to ensure that ergonomics solutions dovetail with other changes being made.
These principles dictate that the ergonomics task force be more of a facilitator, technical resource, and trainer than a problem-solving group. Where appropriate, the Ergonomics Committee will either work with a group who is already studying a job or task, or will request a specific problem-solving team to consider the ergonomics issues. If a team is not available, then the Ergonomics Committee may work on the project itself.
10-9 Ergonomics “Ergo-What?” Oh, yes, ergonomics. That
sounds interesting
Ergonomics — it should reduce injuries
Ergonomics is more than injury prevention
Ergonomics is human performance
Ergonomics helps with every aspect of our business
Results None None (But wants to hear
about success stories from others in this industry)
Very limited (Results only with specific projects — still going on faith)
Paying off
(Still used mainly for injury prevention)
Solid benefits
(Results in safety and health, performance, cost reduction)
Solid benefits (But little need to measure benefits any longer)
Management feelings Skeptical Acceptance
(grudging to willing)
Prove it to me!
(On our site)
Yes, it works, but can you do it again? And let’s show some payoff.
This stuff really works. I’ll have everyone use it.
“And why didn’t you think of ergonomics?
We always use it.”
Ergonomics Committee feelings
Why us? Learning OK, I hope it works. I hope these other
people understand it like we do.
All we do is training. Will we ever get done?
That was a great committee. I’m glad I was on the team!
Role of Ergonomist Advocate Assurance of others Leading the effort Facilitator and training Builder of others; ensures systems in place
Maintenance