No area in the Christian Church stands more in need of re- vitalization than that of doctrinal teaching or theology. Some may object saying,
independent books,“But look at all the manuals, handbooks, and multiple-volume works on theology that have appeared since the close of World War II.” True, there has been a great literary production of material. But how well does the average church member know the basic truths of Christianity and how well can he show the biblical basis for such beliefs? Many people consider doctrine to be an abstract formulation that is either hard to understand or is somewhat like the multiplication
uninteresting. table-useful for mental activity but Some ministers and church leaders veer away from doctrinal teaching because they believe that it leads to division among Christians. Unfortunately, however, ignorance concerning the great truths of Christianity often leads to an even greater peril- an outward appearance of godliness with no power (cf. II Tim.
3:5). If Christian truth and Christian living are brought to- gether (as they are in the New Testament), and if the basis for both is thoroughly understood by sound theological interpreta- tion in the Old and New Testament, a new power and a new unity will appear among Christians even though they are sep- arated organizationally along denominational lines.
When we remove doctrinal teaching from its biblical-histori- cal context, we open the door to rationalistic manipulations in theology. The cold hand of rationalism knows no boundaries. It can invade the doctrinal studies of those who are proud of their orthodoxy as well as those of a more liberal perspective. The
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only way to avoid the paralyzing hold of rationalism is to stay genuinely open to the message of Scripture before, during, and after one molds and formulates it into an organized structure.
The trained or untrained theologian must then be diligent not to add or subtract from the essential emphases in formulating his doctrinal structure because of some plausible conjecture as to what the full picture must be. If God has revealed only a partial picture-and this is certainly what Paul declares in I Corinthians 13:9-13-then the arrangement of what has been revealed must not use rationally invented links to give an arti- ficial wholeness. Instead of accepting a certain truth as part of God’s revelation, interpreters are sometimes tempted to substi- tute something more in keeping with how they think God should work. When Peter tried this in connection with Christ’s death, he received one of Jesus’ sternest rebukes-“Get behind me, Satan” (see Matt. 16:21-23; Mark 8:31-33). Because Peter did not understand the things of God but only the things of men, he structured God’s way in terms of man’s thinking.
TEACHING MINISTRY OF TIIE CH U R C H
In the King James Version the Greek noun didaskalia is al- ways translated “doctrine”1 and in the Pastorals where the ad- jective “sound” accompanies it (I Tim. 1:lO; II Tim. 4:3; Titus 1:9; 2: 1) the phrase “sound doctrine” may carry modern conno- tations that may not have been in the mind of the original writer. The word itself has both an active meaning and a passive meaning. In the active, didaskalia means the act of teaching, instructing, while in the passive it means that which is taught, i.e., teaching.2 A brief survey of the use of the word points up the teaching ministry of the Church. It shows that doctrinal teaching is part of a larger whole, and that to narrow doctrinal teaching to certain topics viewed in an abstract setting can easily lead to philosophizing rather than to a proper under- standing of Christian truth and Christian living.
The word didaskalia is used of human teachings. Jesus said that the Pharisees and scribes exemplified the words of Isaiah (29:13) by honoring God with their lips but with a heart far removed from him. In this state they worshipped God in vain
“teaching as teachings the commandments of men” (Matt. 15:9;
Mark 7:7). Hence the doctrine or teaching of the Pharisees was
1 Cf. Young’s Analytical Concordance to the Bible, p. 267.
2 See Bauer, p. 190. Karl Heinrich Rengstorf, “didaskalia,” TWNT, II, 163.
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only human teaching tragically substituted for the command- ments of God. In Colosse part of the philosophical speculation concerned a legalistic asceticism that forbade eating, enjoying, or consuming (KJ, “touch not, taste not, handle not”) anything.
Paul designates such legalism as “in accord with the command- ments and teachings of men” (Col. 2:22). It contributes to the very indulgence of the flesh that it seeks to correct (Col. 2:23).
Ephesians pictures a contrast between the perfect or mature man and the one who is immature, “tossed here and there by every wind of teaching, in the trickery of men, in the craftiness with respect to the deceitful scheming” Eph. 4:14). In these two pas- sages human teaching is pictured as encouraging fleshly indul- gence. The changeableness and shiftiness of human teaching, springing from a deceitful heart, tosses the immature Christian around while jeopardizing his whole standing and stability.
In contrast to human teaching, there is the teaching of de- mons. Men who withdraw from the faith cannot live in a vacuum. They pay heed to deceitful spirits and to “teachings of demons” (I Tim. 4:l). The minds of men are controlled either by truth or error.
Teachers of truth hold an important office in the Church.
God appoints “first apostles, second prophets, third teachers . . .” (I Cor. 12:28). In Ephesians there is a similar statement except that the fourth group consists of pastors and teachers (Eph. 4:ll). In Romans 12 Paul speaks of the various gifts and he encourages those who have these particular gifts to use them in performing their appointed functions. “Whether the one teaching, let him use the gift in his instruction” (Rom. 12:7).
Here is an active sense of the noun didaskalia-instruction. Such instruction meant making known the details of Jesus’ earthly life, the meaning of his death and resurrection, the proper con- duct of Christians who have been joined to Christ and who share his life, and the climax of history which awaits the return of Christ.
In the opening chapter of I Timothy there is a list of serious moral offences and crimes. It is for these that the law has been established. Then the writer adds: “And if there be any clifferent wrong doing opposed to sound teaching” (I Tim. 1:lO). Sound teaching then involves some “thou shalt nots.” The “teaching”
referred to in this passage consists of norms for human conduct.
Today “sound teaching” often is limited to such topics as the person of Christ, the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, etc., with such teaching largely limited to abstract definitions, differentiation, and discussions.
The New Testament describes the one who corrects false
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asceticism as “being trained in the words of the faith and in the sloble teaching” (I Tim. 4:6). In this case, doctrine or teach- ing is used to show that Leaching of distinctions in foods and asceticism in marriage are false. To be trained in the true words of the faith and in the noble teaching the teacher must make the Christian message an inherent part of his life. Thus teaching is no mere dissemination of information. It is the verbal expres- sion of what the Leacher himself is experiencing.
Paul exhorts Timothy to give careful attention to teaching.
The noun didaskalia here has an active sense: “Until I come apply yourself to [public] reading, to exhortation, to instruction”
(I Tim. 4:13). The instructor is closely tied to his instruction.
Hence in the same context is the exhortation: “Take pains with yourself and with the instruction” (I Tim. 4:16). It is apparent that the truths about the Christian faith were conveyed by in- struction. This active teaching ministry demanded a great deal of the instructor. He was to fix his attention upon himself as well as upon his teaching.
The elders of the New Testament also are involved in teach- ing: “Let the elders who rule [or manage] well be counted worthy of double pay, especially those who toil in the message and in the teaching” (I Tim. 5:17). The message here seems to be the proclamation of good news, of reconciliation to God through commitment to Christ, while the teaching seems to refer to instruction in Christian living.3 A restricted emphasis or meaning to didaskalia is rather rare. Much more common is the comprehensive meaning involving the Christian faith as a whole.
Slaves are urged to watch their conduct and to count their masters worthy of all honor “lest the name of God or the teach- ing be blasphemed” (I Tim. 6: 1). The teaching obviously repre- sents the essence of the Christian faith. Similarly God’s name represents all that God is.
Teaching involves both the truths of what God did in Christ and also the teachings of the Old Testament. Paul was Timo- thy’s spiritual father in regard to the truths of God which he taught Timothy both by speech and writing as well as by his life. II Timothy 3:lO reads: “You have followed as a rule my teaching. . , .” This is followed by a list of other aspects of Paul’s life that Timothy also observed: “My conduct, my aim in life, my faith, my patience, my love, etc.” These were to Timothy exhibits of what God did in Christ through Paul. The Old Testament is also a source of teaching or doctrine: “Every Scripture passage [by Scripture is meant the Old Testament] is
3 Rengstorf, “didaskalia,” TPVNT, II, 165.
inspired of God and is profitable for irzstr~ction . . ” (II Tim.
3: 16). Here also instruction heads the list of those things for which the scriptural passages are profitable. “Now as many things as were written beforehand [the Old Testament] were written for our instruction [or doctrine]” (Rom. 15:4). The scope of the Old Testament is quite broad. Many facets of life are touched upon. Consequently, “instruction” does not refer to some narrow part of the whole but to the impact of the entire Old Testament.
The book of Titus also stresses the central role of teaching.
After listing the qualities that a bishop should have, Paul con- cludes with a picture of the bishop “clinging to the trustworthy message in accordance with the teaching (tdn didachen) in order that he might be able both to exhort in the sound teaching (en t& didaskaliai tei hugiainousei) and to reprove those who con- tradict” (Titus 1:Y). The teaching is to serve as the basis for the trustworthy message and for exhortation. With such a standard the bishop can reprove those who contradict. Titus himself is to be an example. He is to be a pattern of good works. As a teacher he is to show integrity in the teaching, dignity, and sound preaching that is beyond reproach (Titus 2:7-S). Such a combination would produce a man whose influence is felt both through what he does and what he says. This positive emphasis removes all grounds of criticism for those hostile to the gospel.
Slaves are to exhibit reliability, that they may “adorn the teach- ing of God our Saviour in all respects” (Titus 2:9,10). The teaching tells men how to live and the teaching itself is also a part of men’s daily lives. Christians can adorn “the doctrine”
by their conduct (Titus 2:10), or they can cause it to be blas- phemed (I Tim. 6:l). In today’s world the term “doctrine” often has a narrower meaning. It sometimes refers to a body of specific truths about God and man’s relationship to God. This body of specific truths may be couched in erudite, difficult lan- guage. Or it may be in simpler language which by its simplicity confronts the reader with profound depths of meaning. But re- gardless of the form, we must remember that doctrine is for the whole man, not only for his intellect. A study of didaskalia in the New Testament shows that the whole individual is involved in teaching. The teaching must become a part of us. When this happens Christian lives become different from those who know nothing of Christian truths or who merely know about these truths. Classification and structuring of doctrinal truths ought to have one main purpose: to make it easier for these truths to become a part of us. Although a Christian may not grasp all that is involved in each particular truth, he can still use it and
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make it a part of himself. The fact of the return of Christ is written large in the New Testament. Differences about the
“how” of this great event should in no way hinder the appropri- ation of the truth itself. Most people do not understand in detail how an internal combustion engine works, but this has not kept them from making the motor car a part of their daily lives. Doctrine must become a part of men’s daily lives. It must be both “taught” and “walked.” Forgiveness of sins is a doc- trinal fact. Thankfulness and rejoicing are two responses to this fact. Where such responses are tied to the meaning of forgive- ness of sins, the combination is an example of doctrine being
“walked,” i.e., consciously becoming a part of the Christian’s daily activity.
I
HUMAN STRUCTURES FOR DOCTRINAL TH O U G H TEvery theologian presents theological materials in his own way. If he accepts the canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testament (without the Apocrypha) as the base for his theology, he must still select and arrange the theological materials to show their significance either in terms of individual parts of the Scriptures and historical periods or in terms of the whole. This Ilas led to two main ways of structuring the relevant biblical materials. These ways are usually designated as biblical theology and systematic theology.
Biblical Theology, or the Historical Theology of the Old and New Testaments
The name “biblical theology” is rather unfortunate. Any theology which is not “biblical” has no right to the term theol- ogy but should be classified as a philosophy. What has been labeled “biblical theology” is more accurately the historical theology of the Old and New Testaments. Theological materials are arranged in terms of the same historical period, e.g. eighth century prophets,” of the same literary form, e.g. the Synoptic Gospels,5 of the same author, e.g. the Pauline letters, or of in-
4 Cf. J. Barton Payne, The Theology of the Older Testament (1962).
5 Paul Feine, Theologie des Neuen Testaments (1951). Feine sets forth the theological materials of the New Testament in the following arrangement:
I, The Teaching of Jesus according to the Presentation of the [Synoptic]
Gospels; II, The Theological Views of the Early Church [Acts]; III, The Teaching of Paul; IV, The Teaching of John’s Gospel and the Epistles of John; V, The Theological Views of the General Christian Writings, 1. The Apocalypse, 2. The Epistle to the Hebrews, 3. The Epistle of James, 4.
The First Epistle of Peter, 5. The Epistle of Jude, 6. The Second Epistle of Peter; VI, The Main Ideas of New Testament Theology.
dividual writings which are more general either because of the geographical distribution of their recipients or because their contents do not generally pertain to one particular congrega- tion.” But no matter how the material is grouped biblical theol- ogy seeks to discover how the original author and original readers were influenced by their historical situation and how the message from God was peculiarly suited t’o that historical sitzlntion. God’s actions and God’s self-revelation came to his servants in crisis and emergency, in victory and prosperity, in war and in peace. God’s people may have been plunged into apostasy or may have been sufiering under the brutal hand of the oppressor. All of these situations throb with life and mean- ing. And into these situations God came with new life and new meaning. Hence biblical theology is concerned with definite his- torical situations. Because of this the biblical theologian centers his attention lIpon: (1) the theological teachings in a particular canonical Mriting or closely related group of writings; (2) the specific period of the original writer(s) and readers; (3) distinct factors ilt the situation which influenced each writer, readers, and teaching.
In this approach the biblical theologian must be constantly aware of the biblical languages, all known historical factors, and the freshness of the message of God through his servant to men involved in a life and death struggle with dread realities. In recent years biblical theologians have turned more toward topi- cal arrangements rather than historical categories. Yet their methodology is still historical. Most of the categories they em- ploy are taken from the biblical materials.7 The use of a topical arrangement does not make them systematic theologians. It is still the particular historical settings and the b’iblical language which determine the arrangements. Just how this material from another historical setting is to be applied to contemporary man is a question each theologian must answer for himself. How he answers it reveals whether he regards himself as having great
6 Ibid. See Feint, Section V, pp. 373.401.
7 (:f. .\I;111 Richartlson. .41/ I~rtwrlurtio~~ t o the Tl~rnlogy o f t//e A’ercI Testament (1958). The chapter divisions in Richardson’s book show how he structures New Testament theology: I, Faith and Hearing: II, Knowl- edge and Revelation; III, The Power of God unto Salvation; I\‘, The Kingdom of Cfld; V, The Holy Spirit; VI, The Reinterpreted Messiahship;
VII, The Christology of the Apostolic Church: VIII, The Life of Christ;
IX, The Resurrection, Ascension and \‘ictory of Christ; X, The Atonement Wrought by Christ; XI, The \Vhole Christ; XII, The Israel of God; XIII, The Apostolic and Priestly hlinistry; XIV, Ministries within the Church;
XV, Tile Theology of Baptism: XVI, The Eucharistic Tlueology of the New Testament.
continuity with historic orthodoxy, some continuity with his- toric orthodoxy, or a minimal amount of continuity with his- toric orthodoxy.
Systematic Theology
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Systematic theology among orthodox theologians is very bibli- cal in the sense that it derives its subject matter from the Scrip- tures. It differs from biblical theology in that it treats the whole of the Bible (for Protestant theologians, the canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments without the Apocrypha) rather than working through the parts in their historical framework. A systematic theologian takes the theological materials from this comprehensive whole and arranges these in a logical framework which he himself has created. The framework of thought may or may not represent an historical school of theological interpre- tation depending on the theologian who draws it up. But no matter how loyal a particular theologian is to a tradition or a school, each systematic arrangement has its own individual touch. The systematic theologian chooses and creates the frame- work that he believes best exhibits the major and minor em- phases of the whole Bible. 8 These logical categories reflect the aTake for example Louis Berkhof, Systematic Theology (1949). Here are the main logical divisions and emphases: I. The Doctrine of God. A. The Being of God (Existence, Knowability, Being and Attributes, Names, Attrib- utes in General, Incommunicable Attributes, Communicable Attributes, The Holy Trinity). B. The Works of God (Divine Decrees, Predestination, Creation in General, Creation of the Spiritual World, Creation of the Material World, Providence). II. The Doctrine of Man in Relation to God.
A. Man in His original State (Origin, Constitutional Nature, Man as the Image of God, Man in the Covenant of Works). B. Man in the State of Sin (Origin of Sin, Essential Character of Sin, Transmission of Sin, Sin in the Human Race, The Punishment of Sin). C. Man in the Covenant of Grace (Name and Concept of the Covenant, The Covenant of Redemption, Nature of the Covenant of Grace, Dual Aspect of the Covenant, Different Dispensations of the Covenant). III. The Doctrine of the Person and Work of Christ. A. The Person of Christ (Doctrine of Christ in History, Names and Natures of Christ, Unipersonality of Christ). B. The States of Christ (State of Humiliation, The State of Exaltation). C. The Offices of Christ (Prophetic Office, Priestly Office, Cause and Necessity of Atonement, Na- ture of Atonement, Divergent Theories of the Atonement, Purpose and Extent of the Atonement, Intercessory Work of Christ, Kingly Office). IV.
The Doctrine of the Application of the Work of Redemption (Soteriology in General, Operation of the Holy Spirit in General, Common Grace, Mystical Union, Calling in General and External Calling, Regeneration and Effectual Calling, Conversion, Faith, Justification, Sanctification, Perseverance of the Saints). V. The Doctrine of the Church and the Means of Grace. A. The Church (Scriptural Names of the Church and the DOc- trine of the Church in History, Nature of the Church, Government of the