In studying figurative language we are confronted with many semantical-philosophical questions as to whether all language is figurative and whether particular “figures” are only more fig- urative than the socially acknowledged meaning that may be designated as “literal.” We shall not try to answer the questions that are wrapped up in the nature of language. They necessi- tate a careful distinction between “symbol” and “figure,” and they require a careful weighing of the different meanings con- veyed by “symbol” as against “symbolical.” These chapters on figurative language will deal rather with the various kinds of figurative language. By literal meaning the writer refers to the usual or customary sense conveyed by words or expressions. This view of literal meaning is not to be confused with the idea that language, like the multiplication table, is made up of units that always have the same value. This is far from the truth. By fig- urative meaning the writer has in mind the representation
o f
one concept in terms of another because the nature of the two things compared allows such an analogy to be drawn. W h e n Jesus says: “I am the bread of life” (John 6:35), he uses this metaphor because he is to man spiritually what bread is to man physically-the so’urce and sustenance of life.
Nearly all figures of speech come out of the life of the speaker or writer who uses them. This means that the student who understands the backgrouncl of the writer (discussed under
“History and Culture”) will better understand his figurative 179
Ianguagc. l\lost writers, for example, use comparison to explain t h e unl;lmilix by that w h i c h i s alre;itly f~uniliar t o t h e r e a d e r . Jesw often cni~~loyetl figurative language. He i~scd many fig- u r e s ol s~~ecch, b u t h e i s b e s t k n o w n lor his ~~arablcs. It is re- mark;tble that when Jesus llsetl figurzrti\e I;tngrulg~ his listeners were often unaware bf the figure. They apprehended meanings almost immediately; the figures reached their mark. His oppo- nents as well as his disciples grasped enough of his message to know that Jesus’ good ne~vs involved a radical change of per- spective. Jesus used figllrative language to convey how radical W:IS his call to repentance, how decisive was the commitment de- manded by his proclamation about the reign of God, and how far-reaching were the imI)lications of a man’s decision.
1l%ere tli~l Jes~ls obtain his imagery or figurative language?l The sources for the imagery in the Gospel of Luke alone are amazing.
,Jesus sI~owetl his interest in the sphere of nature by the num- ber of ligurcs he utilized from this source. From the animal world he refers to wild animals (foxes, 13:32) and domestic an- imals (sheep, 10:3; 12:32; 15:4-7; camel, 18:25)1 a n d f a r m i n g animals such as the ass and the ox (13: 15,16; 14:5). Birds, such as sparrows or ravens, serve as a source of figures #(12:6,7; 12:24).
Animal habits enter into the imagery: maternal instinct (13:34, 35), scavenging birds (17:37), and ravenous beasts (20:46,47j.
The way men capture animals and catch fish serves as a basis for imagery (5:lO; 7:23; 21:34,35). Wild plants and trees con- tribute to the imagery: lilies (12:27,28), the reed (7:24), a n d the leafing of trees (21:29-31; 23:31). Agriculture and cultivated plants are used: plowing (9:62), sowing (8:5-S), harvesting (10:2), s i f t i n g (22:31), and Fowth (13:18,19; 17:6). Fruit growing is also useful (6:43,44; 13:6-g). From the domain of weather, al- lusion is made to the signs of the weather (12:54,55) and to the suddenness or brilliance of lightning (10:18; 17:24). Material elements are not overlooked: dust (10: 11; 9:5), and stones (19:40).
Jesus draws upon the sphere of domestic and family life to provide imagery. He speaks of wedding customs such as the joy of the brideCg-room and his friends (5:34,35). He notes the sig- nificance of the father-son relationship (15: 1 l-31; 11: 11-13). Fam- 1 Mary Ruth Howcs, “ ,Jcsus’ Use of Comparative Imagery in the Gospel of Luke” (IJnpublishcd Master’s thesis, ‘IIc Graduate School, \Vhcaton College, 1957), pp. 30-58. Miss Howcs in this thesis has exhaustively exam- ined Jesus’ use of imagery in the Gospel of Luke. After showing the var- ious arras of lift from which these images come, she points out how the character of Jesus is illuminated by the great variety of figures which he employctl.
SliOK.1. 1~1c;r’RI:S 01; sI’lxC1i 181 ily ties are given a larger meaning (8:21). The qualities 01 c h i l d r e n a r e c o m p a r e d (18:16,17; 10:21; 9:48; 7:31,32). J e s u s speaks of pai-ts 01 houses and those who seek to enter into them:
a door (13:21-30), a key (11:52), and a thief (12:39). He uses household items and activities: clothing (24:29), mending and sewing (5:36), cleaning (11:39,40; 15:8-10; 11:25), a n d s l e e p i n g (8:52). Jesus knew well the need of illumination for any farnil) unit to function. ln figurative language he draws the spiritual l e s s o n (8:16,17; 11:33,36). J esus s Ied s,’ I- r k of !ire in a figurative way (12:4!1). The ing--edients of cooking provide figures: bread ( 2 2 : 19), d r i n k (5:37-39; 22:ZO; 22:42), salt (14:34,35), l e a v e n (12:l; 13:20,21). Eating and feasting play their role in Jesus’
imagery (14:8-l 1, 12-14, 16-24). The physical body-parts, health, and function-is utilized: hair (21: Iti), action of a physician (4:23; 5:31), v i s i o n o r e y e s i g h t (6:39; 6:41,42; ll:33-Sfi). L i f e a n d tleath p r o v i d e i m a g e s (9:60: 11:44,47,48; 15:24,32; 20:37, 38). The language of the afterlife has a metaphorical base:
Hades (16: 19-31) and Gehenna (12:5).
To the sphere of daily life and business life Jesus makes many allusions. U’ork in general is used (10:7; 11:46), building construction (G:47-49; 14:28-30), various aspects of business:
w e i g h t s (6:38), debts (7:41-43; 11:4), t r a d i n g (9:24-25; 21:19), economic gain and loss: treasure (G:45; 12:21; 12:33,34; 18:22), wealth (6:24,25; 12: l&20), and poverty (6:20,21). Legal matters enter into daily life. The language has significance for higher dimensions (6:37; 18:2-S). P, unishment or disaster provides lan- guage for instruction: drowning (17:2), crucifixion (9:23; 14:27), stripes (12:42-48). Travel serves as a base for the parable of the Good Samaritan (10:30-36). ‘Iliar served as a vehicle for figura- tive language because it came from the daily life of the people (14:31,32; 11:21,22). Government as well as the whole idea of a reign or kingdom played a key role in Jesus’ teaching: en- rollment (10:20), rulers (22:25-27), kingdoms in conflict (11: 17).
The servant-master relationship is also employed: lordship (6:5, 46), stewards and servants (12:35-38; 12:42-48; 16: 1-13; 17:7-10;
19: 12-27), husbandmen (20:9-16).
,Jesus alluded only a few times to religious imagery: passover (22:15,16), baptism (12:50), prayer (18:10-14), secrets or mys- teries (8:lO). However, Jesus called God “Father” in his personal p r a y e r s (10:21,22; 22:42; 23:34,46), in his instruction (6:36;
11:13; 12:30,36; 22:29; 24:49), and in his teaching on prayer (1 I:?) hc speaks of the finger of God (11:20).
Imagery for Jesus is the language of life. So it was for the Old Testament prophets. Because it comes from so many sources, such imagery can be applied and used in a large variety of ways.
FIGURES E~~PHASI~IIW CO M P A R I S O N
Simile
A simile is an explicitly stated comparison employing words such as “like” and “as.” In approaching similes the interpreter should seek to understand fully the two things compared. The understanding of the simile can usually be gained by reflection without any historical research because that which follows the
“as” or “like” is a commonly known item of experience. “Is not my word or message. . . like a hammer that breaks the rock in pieces?” (Jer. 23:29). B ecause similes are easy to grasp is no rea- son for hurrying by them. Reflection always deepens one’s understanding.
When Jesus sent forth the seventy to prepare the way before his coming (Luke 10:1-2), he told them explicitly what their situation would be (Luke 10:3): “Go, behold, I am sending you as lambs in the midst of wolves.” This figure brings out the undercurrent of antipathy to Jesus, the fact that the seventy had no experience or personal qualifications for such conflict, and the increasingly sharp division between those who followed Jesus and those who opposed him.
Jesus, in his lament over Jerusalem, contrasts his own desii.e for the city with the obdurate response of the city toward him.
Only a simile could capture his pathos and concern: “How fre- quently I willed [wished] to gather together your children as a hen gathers together her brood under wings, but you would not” (Matt. 23:37; Luke 13:34). In his comparison, Jesus shows the protection and care he wanted to give to his own people.
The attitude of Jerusalem reflected the cross-currents of thought that were sprea&ng out through the whole country. This simile shows Jesus’ love and concern for a people who were following the familiar road of departure from the God of Jacob.
With great vividness Jesus employs similes to describe his second coming: “Therefore, if they should say to you [i.e., the disciples who were the apostles of the Christian church]: ‘Behold he is in a desert place,’ do not begin to go out; ‘behold, he is in the inner or secret chambers,’ do not begin to believe it. Be- cause, just as the lightning comes out of the east and shines unto the west, in this fashion will be the coming of the son of man” (Matt. 24:27, cf. Luke 17:24). The coming of the Son of man for his disciples will be like the lightning that flashes across the sky. The simile is employed to correct any erroneous reports of a secret coming with Christ in some desert place or inner storehouse.
SHORT FIGURES OF SPEECH 183
The Old Testament is full of similes: see, for example, Isaiah 1:s; 29:s; 55:10-11; Jer. 23:29; M a l a c h i 3:2, e t c .
Similes are also found throughout the epistles of the New Testament (cf. I Cor. 3:15; 13:ll; I Thess. 5:2, etc.), but most of all in the book of Revelation.2 There are so many, in fact, that the reader may forget to think about each one. One should ask himself: (1) Why did John feel the need to employ simile in this particular place? (2) How does the simile enable the reader to grasp better the idea that is being presented? (3) In the book of Revelation it is always good to ask one further question: Even with simile, what is there in this assertion that still is either unknown to the reader or is understood only in a very general way? Similes do bring an increased understand- ing, but they do not guarantee a complete picture or under- standing. While the interpreter should be thankful for what they illuminate, he should never be overzealous to make them say more than they obviously intend to convey. Similes are like wild flowers: if you cultivate them too strenuously, they lose their beauty.
Metaphor
Metaphor is comparison by direct assertion, in which the speaker or writer describes one thing in terms of something else. Most metaphors are designed; i.e., the author intends to make a direct comparison. These can usually be identified from the context, though not always with certainty. Undesigned meta- phors are metaphors presumed to be unintentional.
The word “lord” (kurios in Greek) provides a good example of designed and undesigned metaphor. The literal meaning of kurios, as found in Greek literature, is head (e.g. of a family) or master (of some group).3 This is no doubt the meaning which the disciples frequently had in mind when they called Jesus
“Lord”; he was the master of their group. The metaphorical meaning of kurios, however, is ruler, even sovereign ruler. Thus there is a conscious metaphorical use of kurios in Revelation 19: 16, where Christ is called “King of Kings and Lord of Lords.” Moreover, a conscious use of metaphor is evident in the fact that the vowels added to the Hebrew “Yahweh” (Je- 2 After homoios the following similes or comparative expressions occur:
R e v . 1:15; 2:18; 4:3(twice); 4:6,7(twice); 9:7,10,19; 11:l; 13:2,4,11; 14:14;
18:18; 21:11,18. Numerous examples are found after kds: Rev. 1:10,14,15, 16,17; 2:18,27; 3:3,21; 4:1,6,7; 5:6,11; 6:1,6,11,12,13,14; 8:8,10; 9:2,3,5,7,8,9,17;
10:1,9,10; 12:15; 13:2,3,11; 14:2,3; 15:2; 16:3,13,15,21; 17:12; 18:6,21; 19:1,6,12;
20:s; 21:2,11,21; 22:l.
3 Liddell and Scott, p. 1013.
184 ~N'I~RPRE'I ING l’llli I~ll~1.r;
hovah in the AS\‘) have the meaning of “ruler.” In the AV and the RSV this word is therefore translated “LORD.”
Thus it may very well be pointed out that when Jesus’ dis- ciplcs called their leader “Lord,” intending no metaphor, they nevertheless were using an unconscious metaphor. They were suggesting a link between Jesus and the covenant God of Israel;
they were recogniring implicitly the legitimacy of Jesus’ claim to be establishing the kingdom of God. Later, as they came to absorb Jesus’ teaching, and particularly after Jesus’ death and resurrection, tile disciples became aware of ;he metaphorical meaning of “lord” ad used it deliberately to refer to the deity of <;hriat (cl’. Hebre~vs 1:10-12 with Psalm 102:25-27). As Paul was later to say, to pronounce Jesus “Lord” is to be moved by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 12:3). Eventually, the use of kurios to mean “sovereign ruler” became no longer metaphorical but lit- eral; this transition from unintentional to intentional metaphor, and thence to literal meaning, is thus indirectly an account of a growing appreciation of Jesus’ divine prerogatives.
Jesus trequently used metaphors. “Fear not or cease being afraid, little flock, because your father has resolved [considered it good] to give you the kingdom” (Luke 12:32). Jesus’ concept of the Church is made clear by the same metaphor: “And I have other sheep which are not of this fold; I must also lead these other sheep, and they will hear my voice, and they will b e c o m e 0?7e flock, one shepherd” (John 10:16). Jesus taught that his kindred were not those with physical ties but those who responded to the message of God, thus showing a spiritual relationship to God. “These are my mother and brothers: those hearing and doin,g [keeping] the message of God” (Luke 8:21).
Sometimes metaphor and simile are found side by side. “Simon, Simon, lo Satan has asked for you [plural] for the purpose of sifting [you, ~1.1 as wheat” (Luke 22:31). This comparative im- agery depicts the severe testing which all the disciples would go through. Simon Peter, however, is singled out as the spokes- man and verses 32-34 are concerned solely with Peter. Jesus says that he especially will be tossed around like wheat. He will experience the sifting process that will bring out the depth of his devotion. The metaphor speaks vividly of Peter’s existential situation. Nevertheless, the language of Peter’s situation de- scribes sharply the condition of many contemporary Christians.
They too are “being sifted.” Hence Jesus’ language may prop- erly be applied to their present condition as well.
IMetaphors also are common in the Old Testament (one of the most powerful of all is found in Jer. 2: 13). They are found in descriptions of the activities of God. One such kind of meta-
phor is ;~nthrol~omorl~hism-the ascribing to God of bodily mem- bers and physical movements. “Behold, Jehovah’s hand is not shortened that it cannot save; neither is his car hea\,y, thal it cannot hear” (Isa. 59: 1). The phrase “the arm of God” is often used to describe God’s power and victory. Numerous examples can be found: Deuteronomy 4:34; 5:15; 7:19; 9:29; 11:2; 26:8:
33:27; Psalms 44:3(twice); 77: 15; 89: 10,13,21; 98: 1; 136: 12;
a n d I s a i a h 40:10,11; 44:12; 48:14; 52:lO; 53:l; 59:16; 62:s;
63:5,12. Another variety of metaphor is anthropopathism- the ascribing to God of human emotions, feelings, and re- sponses. God’s grief is stressed in Psalm 95:lO; Hebrews 3:10, 17. God’s anger (thumos) is seen in Revelation 14:8,10,19;
15:1,7; 16:1,19; 18:3; 19: 15. His wrath (or@) also plays a prom- inent role: cf. Matthew 3:7; Luke 3:7; John 3:36; Romans 1: 18;
5:9; Ephesians 5:6; Colossians 3:6; I Thessalonians 1:lO; 5:Y;
H e b r e w s 3:ll; 4:3; R e v e l a t i o n 6:16,17; 11:18; 14:lO; 16:19;
19:15. Grief, anger, wrath, etc., are all genuine responses of God. The metaphorical element arises from the fact that human grief, anger, and wrath are a complex array of elements. Grief can involve self-pity; anger can be filled with an irrational ob- session for revenge; wrath can be overlaid with a passion to re- turn in kind. Yet these elements must be excluded from an accurate picture of God’s grief, anger, and wrath. God’s response is genuine; it is the human counterpart that is tainted by cor- rupt elements. Hence, when the interpreter recognizes these anthropopathisms, he can make an effort to remove all human self-centeredness from such emotions as grief, anger, or wrath.
In doing so he gains a clearer picture of God’s responses.
We may be unable to exclude all foreign elements from the metaphorical language about the being of God. Notwithstand- ing, such language is indispensable. The fact that God feels grief, anger, and wrath shows that the Holy Being of the Bible is not an abstract idea with an abstract set of attributes. The metaphor, therefore, is an extremely important vehicle for con- veying truth and must not be dismissed.
FIGURES INVOLVING ASSOCIATION
Mctonymy
Metonymy means using the name of one thing for another thing because the two are frequently associated together or be- cause one may suggest the other. A common example of meton- ymy is the use of “the White House” to refer to’ the President, e.g. “The White House decided to release the speech earlier
than usual.” Of course it was the President or a member of his staff who made this decision. Substitutions of this kind are nat- ural to our thinking, so it is not surprising that they occur in Scripture. In the account of the rich man and Lazarus, Abraham will not allow any particular representative to go1 back to earth to warn the rich man’s brothers. There is no need for this type of warning because “they have Moses and the prophets. Let them listen to them” (Luke 16:29, cf. also Luke 24:27). Here
“Moses and the prophets” stands for the writings, of Moses and the writings of the prophets. In this kind of metonymy the author is put in place of his writing, or to put it abstractly, the cause is put in place of the elFect.
Metonymy is also found in the Old Testament. Jacob does not want to permit Benjamin to go back to Egyplt with his sons to purchase more food. He knows how much he grieved over the loss of his son Joseph. If harm should befall Benjamin in the way, Jacob declares: “You will bring down my grey hair [hoary head] in sorrow to Sheol” (Gen. 42:38). Here the grey hair or hoary head stands vividly for an old man who, if he should lose his youngest son, would come to his grave in great sorrow.
Paul gives a good example of metonymy in Romans 3:27-30.
“Where, therefore, is boasting? It is eliminated. By what kind of a law? By a law or system of works? No, but by a law of faith [or a faith kind of system]. Now we hold [reckon] that a man is justified by faith apart from the works of the law. Is God only God of the Jews? He is also God of the Gentiles, is he not? Of course he is also God of the Gentiles, since God is one and the same who will justify [acquit] the circumcision because of faith and the uncircumcision through faith.” The context indicates that “circumcision” stands for the Jew and “uncircum- cision” stands for the Gentile. The participation or lack or par- ticipation in a ceremonial rite is used as a designation for a whole people, and for all other peoples. Mankind, including both Jew and Gentile, can be justified only by faith. This ex- ample of metonymy reflects Paul’s Jewish point of view that divides mankind into these two categories.
Synecdoche
A synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part is used for a whole or a whole for a part. An individual may be used for a class or a class for an individual. A singular may be used for a plural and a plural for a singular. In metonymy the associa- I tions are established by the situation or living context of the
writer or speaker, i.e., the relationship is in the mind of the one making the association. In synecdoche the association is rooted in physical or categorical dimensions, i.e., the relationship is due to the nature of the things associated.
Here are some examples of synecdoche. “And Jephthah judged Israel for six years. Then Jephthah, the Gileadite, died, and he was buried in the cities of Gilead” (Judges 12:7). After the death of this judge, he was buried among his own people. Al- though he served the interests of all the tribes, his own tribal loyalty becomes clear at his death. Of course he was buried in only one of the cities of Gilead, but the plural shows the loyalty which his own people felt for Jephthah. Synecdoche underlines the strength of tribal ties.
Both Micah and Isaiah depict the house of Jehovah as OC- cupying a central place at the end of the days. All nations stream to it. Their purpose is to learn from the God of Jacob, so that they may walk in his paths. From Zion goes forth the law, and from Jerusalem the word of the Lord. Not only will there be instruction but there will also’ be judicial decisions af- fecting peoples near and far. In this context we read: “And they will beat their swords into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning knives” (Micah 4:3; Isa. 2:4). Here is synecdoche where the abandonment of two weapons-swords and spears- stands picturesquely for total disarmament. In Joel 3:lO the picture is reversed. There the stress falls on armament: “Beat your plowshares into swords and your pruning knives into spears.” Again the use of part for whole is more effective than to say: “Arm yourselves for war; organize the people for mili- tary conflict.”
FIGURES STRESSING A PERSONAL DIMENSION
Personification
In personification a thing, quality, or idea is represented as a person. “Do not begin to worry about tomorrow, because the morrow will worry about itself. Sufficient [or adequate] for the day is the evil which belongs to that day” (Matt. 6:34). In the Old Testament, Psalm 114 celebrates God’s great deliverance of Israel from Egypt. The psalmist personifies the various en- vironmental factors that were barriers or obstacles to’ be con- quered. He singles out the Red Sea, the Jordan river, the mountains and the hills, and finally the earth itself. The Red Sea is described as fleeing. The Jordan is driven back or turns back. The mountains skip like rams and the little hills like