influences the fragile new ecological equilibrium, even though migratory organisms are able to pass through sluices and turbines. Little quantitative data is available that covers the pre- barrage situation. The comparisons of species distribution are thus based upon the known penetration into the estuary when there was no barrage.
(Little & Mettam). Though these authors do not share the viewpoint that the reason for the small number of TPP is to be attributed to environmental concerns,—in his view the reasons are predominantly economic—one will agree that EIAs are use- ful tools to identify the impacts, and indeed applications of modern appropriate technologies might help abate the objectionable effects of a tidal power plant (Salequzzaman).
The environmental benefits of harnessing tidal power, among such other sources as hydro-electricity and extracting natural gas in the Russian Federation’s Far East- ern region, were pointed out by Streets (2003). Neighboring areas are “choking”
in the fumes emanating from coal-fired and bio-fueled electricity plants; cities in China, Mongolia, both Koreas and Japan would find present relief, not even men- tioning considerable future benefits.
If Gibrat proposed a scale, or better formula, to rate the suitability of sites for location of a TPP, Sergey (2003) established a semi-quantitative rating of environ- mental disturbance brought about by power generating schemes. The thermal power industry is, according to that scale, the most damaging (coefficient 74) and the wave energy capturing industry the most benign (coefficient 31). Second to best is tidal power with a score of 42, just one point “better” than that of solar power.
Environmental and ecological assessments have been conducted in many in- stances and for different sites, thus sometimes before sometimes after construction of a TPP. Many of these “studies” are listed in this book’s bibliography. Table 9.1 refers the reader to the “General Bibliography”.
The project also named Roosevelt Island Tidal Energy Project (RITE) includes an impact study covering fish movement and concomitant protection of the biological resource (primordial concern), river navigation potential encumbrance and security, effect—if any—on the recreational and historical resources, and water quality. At the tip of the turbine’s blunt rotor with a speed of 7.6 m/s there should be no impact upon fish. Further away from the rotor the speed is still lower. Furthermore turbines are spaced 12–30 m apart.2 A protected area is foreseen around the system that covers in total 5,700 m2.
interest, design and site proper implanting, and of course environmental effect and sustainability (Frau 1993).
The regularity from year to year of tidal power (less than 5% variation) is one of its main advantages. Co-lateral advantages are proper to a site: the dam can ac- commodate rail or road traffic, provide navigation improvements, cheap electricity a virtually inexhaustible supply of energy; it can constitute a send off for un- or poorly-exploited regions and is pollution free—though not entirely environmentally benign.
Though capital costs are high—but already reduced by one third by dispensing with cofferdams—the plant’s useful life is two to three times longer than that of ther- mal or nuclear plants. Low-head water power could be converted to compressed air power, and smaller and cheaper high speed air turbo-generators would then produce electrical power.
As an example, for Bay of Fundy projects the benefits of a tidal plant due to fuel cost savings would exceed by far capital and operating costs; the best ratio of benefit to cost was estimated, ten years ago at 2.6 or 3. Compared to alternate energy sources, the benefits to the market areas for tidal power were found similar to nuclear, and superior to coal. These market areas cover the Maritimes, New England and New York; Quebec, a natural customer for such power, will not become a patron because it has too much hydropower available. The Canadian Board that conducted the study on the basis of un-re-timed output of single effect plants concluded that tidal power is economically viable. The simulation was carried out for a period spanning 1995–2015 with generation, loads and prices assumed to remain stable beyond 2015. The role of tidal energy would be to reduce the amounts needed of the most expensive fuel consumed in the market area.
Looked over in this estimation is the site of the plant, the huge compensation paid to farmers for their land and strikes that plagued construction.
The tidal power plant has no related fuel cost and thus once capital cost is recovered, cheaper electricity becomes available. A break-even level is reached at the time a same age nuclear facility or thermal plant has to be replaced. The tidal power plant offers other “dividends” because, contrary to coal-fired plants, it is free from sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide pollution, acid rain genera- tion, water pollution, oil spills, waste products treatment, and decommissioning expenses.
Development of low-pressure air turbine technology, on an industrial scale, was urged already some time ago to strengthen hydro-pneumatic power plants’ compet- itiveness (Baker and Wishart 1986, Cave and Evans 1986).
The electricity production costs calculations sometimes favor the tidal plant, or are said to be about the same as those of conventional or nuclear plants, while the conventional stations are CO2-polluters. Capital costs remain high for a tidal power plant but the longevity of the tidal plant is given at 75 years compared to 25 for a fossil fuel thermal central and between 30 and perhaps 40 years for a nuclear one.
Economic evaluation is made for construction costs per kW and generation costs, this being annual cost/annual electricity generated. The latter can be reduced by
increasing annual electricity generated and/or by reducing costs of equipment, dam construction (not applicable for tide current schemes).
If E represents the annual electricity generated, expressed in GWh, A is the sur- face area of the basin expressed in km2, H the tidal range in m, and K a coefficient varying between 0.3 and 0.5, then
K=K A H2
Annual costs are estimated to be 10–15% of the costs of total construction. No other costs are to be added in the ase of tidal power, but for thermal power, the costs of fuel (coal, oil, etc) must be.
Generation costs vary considerably from one country to another in function of a.o. social conditions; comparisons are thence all but meaningless. In Japan oil, gas and nuclear stations produce electricity at the lowest price with coal costing slightly more; tidal power would cost 3–4 times more, making it, currently, unattractive.
Critics of tidal electricity generation labeled the Canadian Annapolis-Royal “an ex- pensive undertaking”.3
3The general topic of economics has been discussed in greater detail in Charlier (1982, Tidal Energy, op.cit.).
Fig.9.1Environmentalassessmentandimpactoftidalpower
Besides an “index”, annexes include a comprehensive bibliography, a list of compa- nies, research institutions, universities that are involved in matters relevant or per- taining to tidal power plants and related matters. It may be safely estimated that compared to the list compiled three years ago, there is an increase of approximately 30%.
The bibliography has a majority of works written in the English language, al- though considerable effort was expended to list French language contributions to the topic.1It has been arbitrarily cut off in 1982 and 1992. Papers, books and all other printed material pre-dating 1982 constitute the first section. The next one spans the 1982–1992 decade. If a motive for the 1982 cut-off has to be given, then let it be that it is the date when the first ”modern” books dedicated to tidal energy/power were placed on the market (Charlier,2Baker), the fifteenth anniversary of the Rance River Plant was about to be celebrated, and some improvements in construction and oper- ation had gained solid footing. This is not to say that some significant works dealing with TPPs had not been published, including i.a. those of Gibrat, Bernshtein, et al.
before 1982.
The third section groups works placed into circulation since 1992. It might be appropriately pointed out that not less than 22% of all the publications fall within the 1992–2007 15 years span. It is the only one that includes, albeit in small num- ber, publication not in ”hard copy”, viz. in printed form but also in electronic form (CDs, etc). This section is also less comprehensive because several authors list their own sources—works they themselves consulted—but without complete bib- liographic details. The listings go to early 2007.
The General Bibliography encompasses most publications mentioned in foot- notes. One exception to this policy concerns Chapter 2, wherein tide mills are dis- cussed. A succinct bibliography has been appended at the end of that chapter to facilitate research on that specific subject.
1Some articles and books in German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian or Dutch are similarly listed.
Not to overlook Galician, Flemish, Catalan, etc. Where Chinese and Japanese language works are concerned, the titles have mostly been translated in English and a very few have had the original language title transliterated.
2See General Bibliography for the works mentioned herein.
161
Finally an intentionally kept-short glossary has been made into an annex. It is presumed that readers are today far more familiar with ad hoc terminology than they were in 1982 or 1993, dates of Charlier’s previous books on this subject.
What was said before 1982
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163
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