Urban and Land Use planning 7
7.1 Embedding Climate Change in land use planning
Urban and Land Use planning
surroundings, green and rural areas, which may also potentially provide carbon sequestration. Policies aimed at requiring minimum values for density (by unit or floor area) and promoting green belt (45) can encourage low carbon developments with appropriate layouts when considered in context with other strategies for public and green areas (proper densities, mixed use, accessibility and other strategies).
Mixed-use Development is a common approach to urban growth, especially in areas of higher urban density. There is significant evidence and consensus that creating high residential densities co-located with high commercial (employment) densities can lead to reduced commuting and mobility demand. This type of development needs to be considered closely with the public transport strategies and infrastructure to ensure that developments do not become isolated or difficult to service.
Box 17. Urban density in Helsinki, Finland
Within the 2013 city plan, Helsinki aims at increasing the urban density in order to support an ecologically efficient urban structure, with more appealing and organised public transport that allow city residents’ commuting and, therefore, minimising carbon emissions due to traffic. The densification of the urban structure requires stressing quality instead of quantity, by providing connected green spaces and city parks of high functional quality.
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Urban plan - the new Helsinki city plan Vision 2050. City Planning Department of Helsinki 2013
7.1.2 Transport and land use
The integration of land use and transport planning is one of the key elements of a long term strategy aiming at energy efficient districts. Moreover other options are available to improve the energy performance of urban developments.
Transit Oriented Development (TOD) is a planning strategy which aims at producing low carbon development, by considering public transport and transit stations as priorities.
The development of housing, employment, activity sites and public services are placed around existing or new stations served by frequent and efficient service. TODs are characterised by medium to high densities, compact urban forms and mixed use. In this framework, both corridor and nodal approaches to development are considered with the goal of moving citizens as efficiently as possible. The main features of TODs are:
rapid and frequent transit service
high accessibility
mixed use
high quality public spaces and streets
pedestrian and cycle routes
medium- to high-density development within 800 metres of the transit station
As a consequence, as well as optimising the infrastructure requirements for public and active travel, this type of development often provides other community benefits (i.e.
creating mixed-use ‘hubs’).
(45) Green belt application needs to be carefully managed as it can result in the outward migration of development (i.e. outside the green belt).
Box 18. Transit Oriented Development Copenhagen, Denmark
Copenhagen has demonstrated successful applications of TOD and has benefitted significantly from this approach. The city has among the lowest private vehicle ridership per capita in Europe and has also benefited from substantial improvements to air quality and quality of life indices. Local policies and the expansion of the rail service contributed to this result.
TOD principles have been maintained since Copenhagen’s 1947 Finger Plan. As a result of the plan, urban development has focused on decentralised concentration close to urban rail stations. Ørestad New Town is an important example of TOD, it is a planned urban development half a century after the five original corridors designated in the 1947 Finger Plan. Ørestad is a mixed use community, with green areas, and high accessibility. It was planned to be a sustainable development with the metro line at its core together with good bicycle lanes and a deliberately low and expensive car parking provision designed to minimise the use of private car transport.
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Knowles, R. (2012). Transit Oriented Development in Copenhagen, Denmark: from the Finger Plan to Ørestad, Journal of Transport Geography, 22: 251-261
Limiting vehicle infrastructure can reduce and control private vehicle travels and encourage the use of public transport. Similar measures to reduce the provision of parking spaces impose congestion charges and assign low speed zones can have similar impacts. See chapter 0 [Urban Transport] for more details on these options.
Box 19. Congestion charge in London: London, United Kingdom
London has employed congestion charges in central London to reduce congestion, improve air quality and reduce GHG emissions from transport. Proceeds from the charges are subsequently reinvested to finance public transport, further enhancing the impact of the initiative.
https://tfl.gov.uk/
Providing infrastructure for active travel to encourage cycling and walking as alternative forms of commuting and travel can significantly reduce vehicular traffic. Conversion of inner-city areas and peripheral neighbourhoods to pedestrian zones has far-reaching effects in terms of reduced car-related accidents, improved air quality (especially in central areas), and socio-economic benefit for local retail and public transport ridership.
Box 20. Active travel in Barcelona: Barcelona, Spain
Barcelona is developing a ‘Superblocks’ approach by redesigning the city’s streets to limit traffic and increase green and recreational spaces. The basis of the initiative is to bundle the existing city blocks and create spaces reserved for cycling/walking, only retaining vehicular traffic on perimeter roads. Each Superille (superblock) combines 12 city blocks to maximize public space and shape small neighbourhoods around which traffic flows, while inside spaces are repurposed to public- pedestrian friendly areas.
http://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/superilles/es/
7.1.3 Green areas and heat island
The heat island effect (see Part IIIb - 2.7 and glossary) is the phenomenon whereby atmospheric and surface temperatures are higher in urban areas than in the surrounding rural areas (typically by 1-3°C in larger cities) (46). The issue is a result of the combination of low surface albedo (i.e. low reflectivity) of urban surfaces combined with high building density which can limit air circulation. This not only creates health problems and discomfort for urban citizens during extreme weather, but also increases the electricity demand for cooling buildings (by approximately 2-4% per 1°C). There is also a negative impact on air quality. The heat island effect is best mitigated by carefully considering the configuration of (especially high-rise) buildings and green spaces and by creating more reflective, high albedo (i.e. light) surfaces.
(46) United States Environmental Protection Agency
Urban green space provides also carbon sequestration. However, it is generally marginal in the context of overall urban GHG emissions. Parks, greenways, green roofs and community gardens have other indirect benefits in terms of Climate Change mitigation, for example reducing the heat island effect (and therefore cooling demand) and encouraging active travel. Green spaces can also have significant benefits in terms of air quality and human health and climate adaptation/resilience (i.e. reducing storm water run-off and the urban heat island effect)(47).
Box 21.