4
Introduction
Science is neither neutral nor always beneficial.
Controlling science ... raises resilient practical, ethical and legal issues that are a matter of constant debate. The questions involved confront us with fundamental dilemmas, such as the protection of the subjects versus the freedoms to conduct research and publish research findings. (M. Punch 1998, p.167)
Barnes (1979) contends that the concern about ethics in social research has come about only recently because of an historic shift in the balance of power from the research establishment towards ordinary citizens. He argues that the broad civil rights gained by British citizens from the 1950s onwards led them to question those activities that were carried out in the name of science. Previous to this, Barnes argues that citizens had virtually no part to play in what should be investigated, by whom, and how. He cites Mayhew’s research as an example of this ‘old-style’ research:
I made up my mind to deal with human nature as a natural philosopher or a chemist deals with any material object. (Henry Mayhew, in London Labour and the London Poor, 1861–2, cited in Barnes 1979, p.31)
In the past decade, methods of data collection and analysis have become far more sophisticated owing largely to the advanced utilisation of computer technology.
Social research has widened its scope and now has the potential to be far more intrusive and penetrating. Such capabilities have given rise to greater concern in some quarters about the potential that those in positions of power now possess.
In addition, M. Punch (1998) identifies three developments that he says have led to a much greater awareness of the ethical dimension of social research:
1. The influence of feminist methodology has encouraged a scholarship that is based on trust, openness and non-exploitative relationships (see Chapter 2).
2. Interventionist or ‘action’ research has promoted those who were previously regarded as the ‘subjects’ of research to be seen as equal partners – ‘participants’
and ‘respondents’.
3. The financing of research by public bodies is commonly dependent on researchers signing an agreement on ethical standards.
Defining ethical considerations
Barnes (1979, p.16) defines ethical factors as those which:
arise when we try to decide between one course of action and another not in terms of expediency or efficiency but by reference to standards of what is morally right or wrong.
This definition makes an important distinction between matters of principle and matters of expediency– what is right or just in the interests of those who are the focus of research. Ethical considerations place the research participants, rather than the researcher, at the centre of the research design when deciding what is appropriate and acceptable conduct.
However, if we say that decisions need to be made and research planned on the basis of what is right or wrong then we shall obviously encounter problems with the meanings of such words. Knowledge is not simply a neutral product – the val- ues of individual researchers will have a significant impact on the decisions that they take in all aspects of their research.
All research raises ethical issues. When we talk about ‘ethics’ in social research we are addressing those issues that concern the behaviour of social researchers and the consequences that their research brings to the people they study. As such, ethical issues have the potential to impact at every stage of the research process and within any research project. Therefore, all social researchers need to have a clear understanding of the ways in which ethical dilemmas can arise when carrying out their research.
Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (1996, p.77) draw attention to the way in which ethical issues can arise during the course of the research process. They sug- gest that ethical issues may arise from:
• The research problem itself – determinants of intelligence, alcoholism, or child sexual abuse.
• The setting in which the research takes place – hospitals, prisons, or schools.
• The procedures required by the research design – an experiment that may, for example, have negative effects on the research participants.
• The method of data collection – covert observation methods.
• The kinds of people serving as research participants – homeless people, mental health patients, and children who may be vulnerable and relatively powerless to resist being studied.
• The type of data collected – sensitive, personal, or financial information.
• The communication of results – are the sponsors of research likely to attempt to withhold certain results that do not accord with their organisational or com- mercial objectives?
• The pressures put upon research participants by external agencies (such as gov- ernments, employers, or service provides) to become involved in research.
• The (mis)representation of others’ experiences by the researcher – application of cultural norms during the interpretation of data.
We tend to be more conscious of any research in which the researcher comes into direct contact with people through qualitative fieldwork methods, but it would be false to restrict our concerns to such cases. In this chapter we shall consider the ways in which major ethical issues impinge upon research using quantitative meth- ods such as survey and experimental research as well as observation, ethnography, and documentary research.
Many of the issues that will be discussed in this chapter arise out of debate between researchers over a number of notorious and often controversial research projects. These debates have served to put the spotlight on certain key dilemmas that face the social researcher. Burgess (1984, p.185) summarises these key ethical questions as follows:
• How can research take place without the influence of the state, which may aim to produce certain findings to suit its political needs?
• What are the risks and benefits for those individuals who take part in research?
• What should people be told about the conduct of social research?
• Is secret research justifiable?
• What limits, if any, ought to be placed on what data is collected?
• How should data be disseminated?
• What protection can research participants expect from social researchers?
To a large extent discussions about ethics in social research tend to focus on issues of consent, privacy, consequentiality, harm, and confidentiality and anonymity.
It is intended that this chapter will:
• encourage you to think about some of the problems that are inherent in study- ing human behaviour;
• enable you to assess critically the ways in which other researchers have carried out their research;
• prepare you for any possible criticism of your own research in the future;
• encourage you to think about the relationship between you and your partici- pants, and how this may impact upon your research.
We shall identify the principles that help to differentiate ethical research from unethical research, and consider some of the important debates that have taken place in recent years, such as that between the supporters and opponents of ‘covert’
research. We shall also seek to address the key question that is posed when carry- ing out social research – do the ends (research findings) always justify the means?