Qualitative data can be found all around us. In the newspapers we read, the television broadcasts we view, memos received at work, or the text messages we exchange via mobile phones, we come across a wealth of qualitative data every day. These natu- rally occurring sources of data are initially produced for a purpose other than our research; nevertheless, they still provide us with rich data to analyse. It is possible to carry out a highly informative research project which is based on the analysis of this type of qualitative data alone, and for some, such as media analysts, this is often the case. However, qualitative researchers often seek to generate their own data, which is gathered in the field. Methods such as interviews and observations enable researchers to collect rich data which is geared towards the research project at hand. For a further exploration of the differences between qualitative interview data and quantitative questionnaire data, see Example 8.1.
Example 8.1 The differences between in-depth interview data and questionnaire data
A university department is interested in establishing how new technologies are being implemented by its staff to help with learning and teaching. The project has two main objectives: (1) to find out the extent of the use of new
technologies; and (2) to try and understand why the staff are using them, or conversely what the perceived barriers are to implementing them into teaching.
The types of learning technologies available are already known, and include such things as different word processing, analysis, and presentation software packages, email, the Internet, and computer-aided testing. To establish the extent of the use of these, a questionnaire is administered to all staff in the department. It consists of questions asking which technologies are used, for what purpose, and how often. The data provided enables the answers to these research questions to be quantified. The results tell us in fact that 75% of the staff use presentation software as an aid when giving lectures, and that all staff communicate with students via email, whereas only 10% of staff use their own web sites as a learning aid. This data is useful in establishing the type and extent of a phenomenon: What are people doing? How often? For what purpose? This data, therefore, suits the first objective of this project. In order to meet the second objective of the project, in-depth interviews are carried out with a selection of participants with a range of experience in using technology.
Questions are far more open than with the questionnaire, and ask such things as
‘What made you decide to start using email instead of the notice board?’ or ‘Are there any elements of your teaching which have been made easier by using new technologies?’ The data provided in response to these questions is more
detailed, and textual in nature. It provides an insight into the experiences of the staff in using new technologies which perhaps could not have been guessed at prior to the interviews. This data is useful in answering such
questions as ‘why do you think you behave in this way?’ or ‘how do you feel about this particular subject?’ In this sense, the data provided is able to meet the second objective more effectively than that which would be collected through a quantitative survey.
This example highlights the different uses to which quantitative and qualitative data is suited: quantitative data is well suited to explaining what is happening, whereas qualitative data is helpful in understanding how and why something is happening, in terms of a more in-depth exploration of the phenomena. The example also serves to outline some of the characteristics of both data types which will be explored further in this chapter.
Naturally occurring sources
Naturally occurring sources of qualitative data can have an advantage over pri- mary data, since they are formed in the natural setting of the social world, without any influence from the researcher. For example, we may be interested in seeking to understand exploitation and power relations in the workplace. The researcher could interview employees and directors within the organisation and ask about experiences of exploitation or feelings towards relationships with colleagues.
However, this approach may only identify agencies at work which the interviewees are aware of and are willing to discuss with the researcher. Observation techniques may result in a more accurate picture of the ways these issues manifest themselves, but there is still the potential for behaviour to be modified in the presence of the researcher (see the section on reactivity in Chapter 7). In instances such as this, existing documentary sources such as internal memos, job contracts, and email correspondence may provide the researcher with the most valid data.
It should be noted that when examining naturally occurring documents such as these, the context is equally as important as the content. Hammersley and Atkinson (1995, p.173) draw attention to the types of questions researchers should have in mind when approaching this type of data:
The presence and significance of documentary products provide the ethnogra- pher with a rich vein of analytic topics, as well as a valuable source of informa- tion. Such topics include: How are documents written? How are they read? Who writes them? Who reads them? For what purposes? On what occasions? With what outcomes? What is recorded? What is omitted? What does the writer seem to take for granted about the reader(s)? What do readers need to know in order to make sense of them?
It is evident from the questions that Hammersley and Atkinson pose that the researcher needs to look beyond the meanings portrayed by the words or pictures in naturally occurring sources, in order to appreciate the context in which the source is used in its natural setting. This echoes disagreement between positivist approaches and those of naturalism. Positivists strive towards gathering precisely measured data which is uncontaminated by external factors, such as the linguistic ambiguities of open responses. This, they would argue, adds reliability to the data since they are able to use the data to report the observed ‘facts’. On the other hand, naturalists would contend that meaning can only be properly derived from data that is collected from within the field.
Data which is collected in this way benefits from being contextually situated.
For example, if we were interested in what it was like to be incarcerated in a prison serving a long sentence, we could interview prisoners. These interviews would most likely take place in an interview room especially set up for the purpose: it is unlikely that they would take part in the interviewee’s cell. We may acquire a large amount of highly informative interview data, but this will have been provided in a false situation. The interview room is not part of the prisoner’s everyday life.
However, if we were able to gain access to a prisoner’s journal which had been written in a cell during the long, monotonous days spent serving a sentence, this might tell us a different story. It is such a consideration of the context in which doc- uments are produced, and for what purpose, which enables us to see the advan- tages of naturally occurring sources of data.
Activity 8.1
Consider the questions outlined by Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) and how they might be applied to the previous example of exploring power relations and exploitation in the workplace. Firstly, make a list of the different types of naturally occurring sources which may be of use to a researcher seeking to understand this research area.
Now ask yourself the following questions, making notes against each source you have identified.
1. The distribution lists on emails might provide us with useful data. What type of data could be derived from the source you have identified?
2. The distribution lists could tell us something about how information is shared with, or withheld from, particular groups via email.
How would the data you have identified in the previous question help you to tackle the research question?
3. Are there any limitations to using these sources?