In the coming years, as political marketing research continues to flourish, it can be expected to move in several directions, both micro and macro. We offer several directions that we believe research will take, as well as those that we think will be beneficial to the field.
First, research should explore linkages among symbols, politics, and marketing communications. Although there have been numerous applications of symbolic pol- itics to political behavior, few studies have examined the influences of messages that try to arouse symbolic sentiments (e.g., on gun control, abortion, and race).
The symbolic politics approach, although not without its shortcomings, offers a rich framework for examining political marketing effects. For example, there is a pressing need to extend the psychologically relevant notion of accessibility, am- ply tested in the laboratory but insufficiently in the field, to political marketing settings.
With framing a popular topic in political communication research, we will likely see more studies that apply framing theory to political communication. We believe that framing approaches have intriguing possibilities for marketing, given the subtle influences that frames can exert on attitudes. In a similar fashion, we believe that there will be increased attention paid to the role affect plays in micro marketing effects, particularly how it meshes with cognition, and ways in which marketers can evoke affect in politically persuasive ways. Affect is an essential part of politics yet was inexcusably neglected by researchers for years . With models available to explain the role that affect plays in political persuasion (e.g., Petty & Wegener, 1999;
Schwarz et al., 1991), there is good reason to expect increased attention to this in future years.
Other psychological processes worthy of attention include political attitude structure and function. Attitudes that are structured around an ideology are likely to be differentially susceptible to media manipulation than those that are inchoate or are structured around a variety of unconnected beliefs or around memorable affects. Persuasive messages are also apt to have different effects, depending on the function that politics plays in people’s lives. Functional studies of attitudes are flourishing in social psychology (e.g., Maio & Olson, 2000) and have interesting im- plications for political marketing. For example, voters for whom political attitudes serve a social adjustment function (impressing others) should be influenced by different types of messages than those for whom attitudes play a deeper, value- expressive role.
Moving to more macro areas, we are certain that there will be considerable at- tention paid to political marketing via the Internet, already a topic of interest to advertising scholars. We believe that such research should be theory-based, and we encourage scholars to adapt dual process models to the interactive world of political Web sites. Sites permit tailoring of messages to individual receivers’ ability and motivational levels, a development with intriguing theoretical practical, and ethical implications. The ELM, recently applied to the study of commercial adver- tising on the Web (Cho, 1999), provides a useful framework for studying Internet political advertising effects.
We also issue a clarion call for research in contexts other than the presidency.
The presidency is the most exciting and prestigious arena to study, but it is not the only one. Much marketing occurs in lower-level elections and in issue campaigns, with potentially greater effect in light of the automatic, low-involvement processing mode that typically accompanies the reception of such messages.
Researchers should strive to apply marketing and social psychological princi- ples to campaigns designed to ameliorate the sorry state of politics in contem- porary America. Marketing and persuasion theories are designed with scientific, rather than ethical, purposes in mind. As rhetorical scholars are exquisitely aware, this stands in sharp contrast with early persuasion approaches, notably those of Aristotle, who linked persuasive communication and ethics (Roberts, 1954), albeit with less analytical flourish than theorists of today. Social marketing, although not explicitly guided by a philosophy of ethics, is the best available approach to direct such efforts. Emboldened by the work of Kotler and Kotler (1999) and Goldberg, Fishbein, and Middlestadt (1997), researchers should apply marketing principles to the problem of low voter turnout and nonvoting among young people (Doppelt
& Shearer, 1999). With America lagging behind much of the world when it comes to casting ballots (Newman, 1999a), yet arguably rivaling or exceeding other demo- cratic countries when it comes to registering cynicism about the political process, the time has come for a series of theory-driven marketing campaigns designed to change perceptions of the political marketplace and entice a generation of young people to participate more actively in American politics.
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