posed of people who, for example, are similar in ages, such as a group for children, for adolescents, or for older persons. Other homogeneous groups may be based on a common interest or problem. Short-term groups are usu- ally characterized by homogeneous membership. The unitary focus in a ho- mogeneous group tends to foster group cohesion, and common problem areas of group members promote sharing experiences and learning from one another.
Although homogeneous membership can be more appropriate for certain target populations with defi nite needs or with short-term groups, heteroge- neous membership has some defi nite advantages for many personal growth groups, whether short or long term. A heterogeneous group represents a mi- crocosm of the social structure that exists in the everyday world and offers participants the opportunity to experiment with new behaviors, develop social skills, and get feedback from many diverse sources. If a simulation of everyday life is desired, it is well to have a range of ages, races, cultural and ethnic back- grounds, gender and sexual identity, and a variety of concerns.
Meeting Place
Another pregroup concern is the setting. Privacy, a certain de- gree of attractiveness, and a place that allows for face-to-face interaction are crucial. A poor setting can set a negative tone that will adversely affect the co- hesion of the group, so every effort should be made to secure a meeting place that will facilitate in-depth work.Group Size
The desirable size for a group depends on factors such as the age of the clients, the type of group, the experience of the group counselors, and the type of problems explored. Another element to be taken into consider- ation is whether the group has one leader or more. For ongoing groups with adults, about eight members with one leader seems to be a good size. Groups with children may be as small as three or four. In general, the group should have enough people to afford ample interaction so that it doesn’t drag and yet be small enough to give everyone a chance to participate frequently without, however, losing the sense of “group.”Frequency and Length of Meetings
How often should groups meet and for how long? These issues, too, depend on the type of group and, to some ex- tent, on the experience of the leader. Once a week is a typical format for most counseling groups. With children and adolescents, it is usually better to meet more frequently for shorter sessions. For adults who are functioning relatively well, a 2-hour group each week is long enough to allow for some intensive work. Outpatient groups often meet for a 90-minute session, whereas inpa- tient groups may have shorter sessions. Groups do not necessarily have to meet weekly, even though this is typical.76
CHAPTER FOUR
Short-Term Versus Long-Term Groups
It is wise to set a termination date at the outset of a closed group so members have a clear idea of their commitment. The duration varies from group to group, depending on the type of group, the pop- ulation, and the requirements of the agency. Many community agencies have policies that limit groups to a relatively short duration. For brief group therapy, length of treatment is a defi ning characteristic. Time-limited groups have a spe- cifi c focus, and interventions have the aim of being as effi cient as possible.Some closed groups have long-term goals that require long-term commit- ments of members. This is particularly true of psychodynamic groups that aim for deeper work. In private practice, groups can be either short or long term.
Some of these groups last for 12 to 20 weeks, some for 30 to 50 weeks, and some for more than a year. Many college and high school groups typically run for the length of a semester (about 15 weeks). The group should meet long enough to allow for cohesion and productive work, yet not so long that it seems to drag on interminably.
THE USES OF A PREGROUP MEETING OR THE INITIAL SESSION
Once group membership has been established, the leader can turn his or her attention to this question: “What is the group leader’s responsibility in prepar- ing members to get the maximum benefi t from their group experience?” My bias is that systematic preparation is essential and that it begins at the private screening interview and continues during the fi rst few sessions. Preparation consists essentially of exploring with members their expectations, fears, goals, and misconceptions; the basics of group process; the psychological risks as- sociated with group membership and ways of minimizing them; the values and limitations of groups; guidelines for getting the most from the group ex- perience; and the necessity of confi dentiality. This preparation can be done through a preliminary meeting of all those who will be joining the group.
In addition to the private interview with each person before the group is formed, I use the initial session as a group screening device. The initial session is a good place to talk about the purposes of the group, to let members know how they will be using group time, to explore many of the possible issues that might be considered in the group, to discuss the ground rules and policies, and to begin the getting-acquainted process. Because I prefer to have people de- cide early if they are ready for a group and willing to become active members, I encourage participants to consider the fi rst session as an opportunity to help them make such a decision.
Structuring the group, including the specifi cation of norms and procedures, should be accomplished early in the group’s history. Although structuring be- gins at the private intake session, it will be necessary to continue this process the fi rst time the group actually meets. In fact, structuring is an ongoing pro- cess that is a vital part of the early phases of your group. Some group members expect a low degree of structure, and others prefer a group that is highly struc- tured with clearly defi ned tasks.
MULTICULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PREPARING MEMBERS FOR A GROUP EXPERIENCE
Screening, selecting, and orienting members to group procedures are espe- cially critical in working with individuals from diverse cultural groups. Many group members hold values and expectations that make it diffi cult for them
EARLY STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A GROUP
77 to participate fully in a group experience. For example, the free participation
and exchange of views in therapy groups may confl ict with Asian values of humility and modesty. Asian clients can experiencing diffi culty in a group, es- pecially if they are expected to make deeply personal disclosures too quickly.
Therefore, screening and adequate preparation are essential for Asian Ameri- can clients who have had no prior therapeutic experience in a group setting.
In working with Asian members, Chen and Han (2001) state that preparation is critical because many of the behaviors expected in a group may be foreign to what people do in their everyday lives. For example, some cultures (such as Latino and Asian) value indirect communication; however, group members are told to be direct as they speak to one another.
In daily life, people are often encouraged to mask their real feelings so that they will not offend others. In some cultures, individuals are not encouraged to express their feelings openly, to talk about their personal problems with people whom they do not know well, or to tell others what they think about them. For individuals of other ethnic groups, preparation is no less important.
Group workers need to be aware that reluctance or hesitation to participate fully in a group may be more the result of cultural background than of an un- cooperative attitude.
Many group members, regardless of their cultural background, may hesi- tate to reveal personal matters for fear of being judged and of being rejected.
In a group situation, members are generally expected to abide by the norms of openness, honesty, and directness, and they are expected to make themselves emotionally vulnerable. Depending on one’s cultural background, some group norms may be very demanding and may go against the grain of a member’s personal and cultural value system.
Members need to know the purpose of the group, how the group experience can be of personal value to them, and how they can get the most from a group experience. Adequate preparation of members is one of the best ways to in- crease the chances of a successful group experience for all clients. It is essen- tial that the goals and the purposes of the group be appropriate for the cultural context of clients with diverse cultural backgrounds. This is why a discussion of the aims of a group and the importance of members’ establishing their own goals is so important.
GUIDELINES FOR ORIENTATION AND PREPARATION OF MEMBERS
Although I believe strongly in the value of systematic and complete prepara- tion of group members, I also do see the danger of overpreparation. For exam- ple, I typically ask members to talk early in the group about any fears or res- ervations they might have. I also explore a few common risks of participating in a group. In this particular area, however, if the leader becomes too specifi c, some members may end up developing concerns or even fears that they never had before and that may become self-fulfi lling prophecies. In addition, too much structure imposed by the leader can stifl e any initiative on the part of the members. The risks inherent in overpreparation should be balanced against those that accompany insuffi cient preparation. Excessive fl oundering and use- less confl ict during the group’s later stages are often the result of a failure to acquire basic skills and a lack of understanding of the group process.
I begin my preparation program at the time of screening each potential member, and I devote most of the fi rst group meeting (what I call the pregroup
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meeting) to orientation about group process. This orientation continues dur- ing the initial phase of the group. Group process issues emerge naturally while the group is taking shape, and these concerns are dealt with as they arise.
I start by discussing with the participants the importance of their own prep- aration for group work. I stress that what they get from their group will de- pend largely on their level of investment. During the pregroup meeting and continuing into the initial group sessions, I view my role as helping mem- bers examine and decide on their level of commitment. We focus on what they want to get from participating in a group, and I assist them in defi ning clear, specifi c, and meaningful personal goals. After they have decided on some per- sonal goals that will guide their work in the group, they are asked to refi ne these goals by developing a contract. (For details on ways to help members defi ne personal goals and formulate contracts, see the discussions of transac- tional analysis, behavioral group therapy, rational emotive behavior therapy, reality therapy, and solution-focused brief therapy in Chapters 12 through 16.)
At the pregroup meeting I ask members to raise any questions they have about the group and encourage members to talk about their expectations, their reasons for being in the group, their fears or concerns about participat- ing, and their hopes. I also provide some guidelines on what members can do to maximize the benefi t of the group in enabling them to make the changes they desire in their lives. Especially important is a discussion regarding the rationale for appropriate self-disclosure. Members are told that it is their de- cision to select the personal themes they want to explore in the group. They also hear that it is critical that they be willing to share persistent reactions they are having to here-and-now group interactions. My purpose is to teach them that the group will function only if they are willing to express what they are thinking and feeling about being in the group. In fact, their reactions provide the direction in which we typically proceed during the fi rst few sessions. I also encourage them to bring up any questions or concerns they have about group process.
Members are asked to give some thought before they come to each session about personal issues they are willing to bring up for exploration. Although they may have a specifi c agenda when they come to a group meeting, I encour- age them to remain fl exible by being willing to work on other concerns that may emerge spontaneously as others are interacting in the group.
Group members are typically asked to keep a journal and to spontaneously write about the range of reactions they have while they are in the group as well as reactions to what they experience between the sessions. They are en- couraged to bring into the group a summary of what they have been writing in their journals. In this way they are taught about the value of continuing work that was begun during a session. Group members uniformly comment about the value of the writing they do throughout the life of a group. Their journal- ing not only keeps them focused on their goals but also provides them with a basis for identifying ways that they have changed. Journal entries also provide a mechanism for self-assessment of their involvement in the group.
Members frequently hear about the importance of using the group to prac- tice new behaviors. They learn that the group is not an end in itself but only a means to help them acquire new ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving. They are continually invited to try out new styles of behavior during the sessions to see if they might want to make certain changes. I suggest that members
EARLY STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A GROUP
79 write in their journals about their reactions to behavior they have experiment-
ed with during the group sessions and also about new behaviors they have implemented in everyday life.
Chapter 1 of the Student Manual that accompanies this book contains a set of suggestions entitled “Ways of Getting the Most From Your Group Experience.”
These guidelines serve as one method of teaching members how to become active participants.
SUMMARY OF PREGROUP ISSUES