Participation in Experiential Training Workshops I have found training workshops most useful in helping group counselors develop the skills neces-
Stage 1: Pregroup Issues—Formation of the Group
For a group to be successful, you need to devote considerable time to planning.
In my view planning should begin with drafting a written proposal containing the basic purposes of the group, the population to be served, a clear rationale for the group—namely, the need for and justifi cation of that particular group—
ways to announce the group and recruit members, the screening and selection process for members, the size and duration of the group, the frequency and time of meetings, the group structure and format, the methods of preparing members, whether the group will be open or closed, whether membership will be voluntary or involuntary, and the follow-up and evaluation procedures.
It cannot be overstressed that leader preparation in this formative phase is crucial to the outcome of a group. Thus it is time well spent to think about the kind of group you want and to prepare yourself psychologically. If your expectations are unclear, and if the purposes and structure of the group are vague, the mem- bers will surely fl ounder needlessly. However, at times students may be thrust into an internship at a community mental health center and fi nd they are leading groups that are not well planned. Because of their role as interns in the agency, students may fi nd it diffi cult to speak up about their concerns. If you fi nd yourself in this kind of situation, I suggest that you address your concerns to both your supervisor at your university and to your fi eld supervisor at your agency. Even if the situation does not change, at least you have made your concerns known.
ANNOUNCING A GROUP AND RECRUITING MEMBERS
How a group is announced infl uences the way it will be received by poten- tial members and the kind of people who will be attracted to it. It is impera- tive that you say enough to give prospective members a clear idea about the group’s rationale and goals.
When recruiting potential members for a group, I am in favor of making di- rect contact with the population that is most likely to benefi t from the group.
For example, if you are planning a group at a school, make personal visits to several classes to introduce yourself and to tell the students about the group.
You could also distribute a brief application form to anyone who wanted to fi nd out more about the group.
SCREENING AND SELECTING GROUP MEMBERS
The ACA’s (2005) ethical standard pertaining to screening group members reads as follows:
Counselors screen prospective group counseling/therapy participants. To the extent possible, counselors select members whose needs and goals are compat- ible with goals of the group, who will not impede the group process, and whose well-being will not be jeopardized by the group experience. (A.8.a.)
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As you screen and select group members, ask yourself these two questions:
“How can I decide who is most likely to benefi t from this group?” “Who is likely to be disturbed by group participation or be a negative infl uence for the other members?” If you have an open group, you would want to ask this ques- tion as well: “How might this potential member fi t with members already in the group?”
The setting in which leaders work may make it diffi cult to screen members individually, but there are other ways of accomplishing this. For example, in agency settings, clients are often court-ordered to a group, which makes screening impractical. Even in these instances, however, the group leader can still attempt to meet with each client for a pregroup interview rather than a formal screening session. If screening is not possible, the initial group meeting can be structured as an information and screening session.
Once potential members have been recruited, the leader must determine who (if anyone) should be excluded. Careful screening will lessen the psycho- logical risks of inappropriate participation in a group. During the screening session, the leader can spend some time exploring with potential members any fears or concerns they have about participating in a group.
The leader can help members make an assessment of their readiness for a group and discuss the potential life changes that might come about. Members can benefi t from knowing that there is a price for remaining the same as well as for making substantive changes. If individuals go into a group unaware of the potential impact of their personal changes on others in their lives, their motivation for continuing is likely to decrease if they encounter problems with their family.
Screening should be a two-way process, and potential members should have an opportunity at the private screening interview to ask questions to de- termine whether the group and the leader are right for them. Group leaders should encourage prospective members to be involved in the decision con- cerning the appropriateness of their participation in the group. It is sometimes diffi cult to determine which candidates will benefi t from a group. During the private interview, individuals may be vague about what they hope to get from the group. They may be frightened, tense, and defensive, and they may ap- proach the personal interview as they would a job interview, especially if they are anxious about being admitted to the group.
Of course, there is always the possibility that the leader may have real res- ervations about including some people who are quite determined to join the group. Some people can quite literally drain the energy of the group so that little is left for productive work. Also, the presence of certain people can make group cohesion diffi cult to attain. This is especially true of individuals who have a need to monopolize and dominate, of hostile or aggressive clients with a need to act out, and of people who are extremely self-centered and who seek a group as an audience.
The purpose of screening is to prevent potential harm to group members, not to make the leader’s job more pleasant. Some leaders screen out peo- ple based on their own personal dislike or countertransference issues, even though these individuals might benefi t from a group experience. Although some individuals may appear somewhat reluctant or defensive, this alone is not a suffi cient reason to rule them out of participating in a group. The basic question for the selection of a group member is this: “Will the group
EARLY STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A GROUP
73 be productive or counterproductive for this individual?” If the answer is
“counterproductive,” he or she should not be placed in a group because doing so is likely to result in a negative experience.
According to Burlingame, Fuhriman, and Johnson (2002), people who should probably be excluded from a group include those who are actively psychotic or organically impaired, those severely limited in interpersonal skills and im- pervious to feedback, and those who are unable or unwilling to abide by a con- tract. Others who should generally be excluded from most groups are people who are in a state of extreme crisis, who are suicidal, who have sociopathic personalities, who are highly suspicious, or who are lacking in ego strength and are prone to fragmented and bizarre behavior.
It is diffi cult to say categorically that a certain kind of person should be ex- cluded from all groups; the type of group will determine who may benefi t from the group experience. For example, an alcoholic might be excluded from a per- sonal growth group but be an appropriate candidate for a homogeneous group of individuals who suffer from addiction problems, be it addiction to alcohol, to other drugs, or to food. As to those who are good candidates to include in a group, Burlingame, Fuhriman, and Johnson (2002) list individuals who defi ne problems as interpersonal, are able to give and receive feedback, have a capac- ity for empathy, and are highly motivated.
The screening session is an opportunity for the leader to evaluate candi- dates and to determine what they want from the group experience. It is also a chance for prospective members to get to know the leader and to develop a feeling of confi dence. The manner in which this initial interview is conducted has a lot to do with establishing the trust level of the group. During this inter- view, I stress the two-way exchange, hoping that members will feel free to ask the questions that will help them determine whether they want to join this group at this particular time. Here are some questions I consider in screening:
• Does this person appear to want to do what is necessary to be a productive group member?
• Has the decision to join the group been made by the person?
• Will this person be able to attend to the group tasks?
• Does the candidate have a sense of what he or she would want to accom- plish by being in a group?
• Is the individual open and willing to share something personal?
• How is a prospective member likely to fi t with other members so that the group can work?
The selection of members to ensure optimum group balance often seems very challenging, if not an impossible task. In the context of group psycho- therapy, Yalom (2005) argues that unless careful selection criteria are employed clients may end up discouraged and not helped. He maintains that it is easier to identify those who should be excluded from a therapy group than it is to iden- tify those who should be included. Citing clinical studies, Yalom lists the fol- lowing as poor candidates for a heterogeneous, outpatient, intensive-therapy group: brain-damaged people, paranoid clients, hypochondrial individuals, those who are addicted to drugs or alcohol, acutely psychotic individuals, and sociopathic personalities. In terms of criteria for inclusion, Yalom contends that the client’s level of motivation to work is the most important variable. From his
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perspective, groups are useful for people who have interpersonal problems such as loneliness, an inability to make or maintain intimate contacts, feelings of being unlovable, fears of being assertive, and dependency. Individuals who lack meaning in life, who suffer from diffuse anxiety, who are searching for an identity, who fear success, and who are compulsive workers might also profi t from a group experience.
Whether a person is to be included or excluded has much to do with the pur- poses of the group. You have a responsibility to determine whether a prospec- tive member is suitable for a given group; this decision will protect both the prospective member and the group itself. Perhaps the most important thing is to choose people who are likely to work well together, even though the group may be a heterogeneous one. At times, you may have to inform prospective members that a particular group could be harmful to them. If you decide that certain members are not appropriate for your group, provide these individuals with the reasons for your decision and make appropriate referrals.
PRACTICAL CONCERNS IN THE FORMATION OF A GROUP
Open Versus Closed Groups
As a result of managed care, many groups tend to be short term, solution oriented, and characterized by changing member- ship. Whether the group will be open or closed may be determined, in part, by the population and the setting. But the issue needs to be discussed and de- cided before the group meets, or at the initial session. There are some distinct advantages to both kinds of groups. In a closed group, no new members are added for the predetermined duration of its life. This practice offers a stability that makes continuity possible and fosters cohesion among group members. If too many members drop out of a closed group, however, the group process is drastically affected.In an open group, new members replace those who are leaving, and this can provide new stimulation. A disadvantage of the open group is that new mem- bers may have a diffi cult time becoming part of the group because they are not aware of what has been discussed before they joined. Another disadvantage is that changing group membership can have adverse effects on the cohesion of the group. Therefore, if the fl ow of the group is to be maintained, the leader needs to devote time and attention to preparing new members and helping them become integrated.