CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
G. Definition of the Key Terms
2. Indirect Strategies
The second major strategy is indirect strategies. Oxford (1990:135) defines that ―indirect learning strategies are language learning strategies that support and manage language learning without directly involving the target language‖. This strategy is for general management of learning and can be likened to the director of the play. This strategy consists of metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies.
a. Metacognitive strategies
Oxford (1990: 136) explains that metacognitve means beyond, beside, or with the cognitive. Therefore, metacognitive strategies are actions which go beyond purely cognitive devices, and which provide a way for learners to coordinate their own learning process. Furthermore, Oxford (1990:326) states that in speaking metacognitive strategies include three strategy sets as follows:
First, centering your learning, this strategy include: ―over viewing and linking with already known material, paying attention, and delaying speech production to focus on listening‖. This set of three strategies help learners to converge their attention and energies on certain language task, activities, language skills, or materials. Second, arranging and planning your learning, this set contains six strategies, all of which help learners to organize and plan so as to get the most out of language learning. These strategies touch many areas ―finding out about language learning, organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a language task, planning for a language task, and the last one seeking practice opportunities‖. And, third, evaluating your learning, in this set are two related strategies, both aiding learners in checking their language performance: ―self-monitoring and self- evaluating.
b) Affective strategies
Oxford (1990:140) argues that ―the term affective refers to emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values. It is possible to overstate the importance of the affective factors influencing language learning. Language learners can gain control over these factors through affective strategies‖. Furthermore, Oxford (1990:326) mentions that there are three main sets of speaking affective strategies exist as follows:
First, lowering your anxiety, this strategy consists of three points. They are:
using progressive (relaxation, deep breathing, or mediation), using music, and using laughter. Each of strategies has a physical component and mental component. Second, encouraging yourself, there are three set of strategies in this strategies. It strategies include: making positive statements, taking risk wisely, and rewarding yourself. This set of three strategies is often forgotten
by language learners, especially those who expect encouragement mainly from other people and do not realize they can provide their own. However, the most potent encouragement-and the only available encouragement in many independent language learning situations-may come from inside the learner. Self-encouragement includes saying supportive things, prodding oneself to take risk wisely, and providing rewards. And third, taking your emotional temperature, the four strategies in this set help learners to assess their feelings, motivations, and attitudes and to relate them to language tasks.
It strategies consist of: listening to your body, using a checklist, writing a language learning diary, and the last one discussing your feelings with someone else.
c) Social Strategies
Oxford (1990: 144) states ―language is a form of social behavior; it is communication occurs with others. Learning a language this involves other people, and appropriate social strategies are very important in this process‖.
Furthermore, Oxford (1990:327) mentions that there are three sets of speaking social strategies, each set comprising two specific strategies as follows:
First, asking question, this set of strategies involves asking someone, possibly a teacher or native speaker or even a more proficient fellow learner, for clarification, verification, or correction. It strategies include asking for correction. Second, cooperating with others, these strategies are the basis of cooperative language learning, which not only increases learners‘ language performance but also enhances self-worth and social acceptance. The set of strategies are: cooperating with peers and cooperating with proficient users of the new language. And third, empathizing with others, there are two points of these strategies, developing cultural understanding and becoming aware of others‘ thoughts and feelings. Empathy can be developed more easily when language learners use these two strategies.
In this research, the researcher will use Oxford‘s concepts to determine and find the contribution of students‘ speaking learning strategies. The reason the researcher choose Oxford‘s concepts is because this concepts have more complex strategies than others experts above. Oxford‘s concepts are useful in virtually all language learning situations and are applicable to all four language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing.
c. Indicators of Students’ Speaking Learning Strategies
Oxford (1990:56-9, 151-173, 326-327) mentions that strategies useful for speaking, namely, direct and direct strategies as follows:
First, direct strategies, the indicators and sub indicators of students‘ speaking learning strategies are memory strategies (creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing well), cognitive strategies (practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning), and compensation strategies (overcoming and limitations in speaking). Second, indirect strategies involve metacognitive strategies (centering your learning, arranging and planning your learning, evaluating your learning), affective strategies (lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself, taking your emotional temperature), and social strategies (asking questions, cooperating with others, empathizing with others).
Furthermore, Alcaya et all in Cohen (1996:23-26) mention that ―the indicator of speaking learning strategies involve lower your anxiety, prepare and plan, feeling in control, be involved in the conversation, monitor your performance, evaluate your performance and plan for future tasks‖. Finally, it can be concluded that the indicators of learning strategies in speaking skill involve direct and indirect strategies that relates to the before, while and after speak.
Relates to the students, they can speak and perform their speaking skill in naturally and systematic way in order to the listener or audience can caught the information what are they talking about.
Finally, it can be concluded that the indicators of speaking learning strategies based on the Oxford concepts are as table below:
Table1: Indicators of Students’ Speaking Learning Strategies
VARIABLES INDICATORS SUB-INDICATORS
Direct Strategies
Memory Strategies
- Creating mental linkages: placing new words into a context
- Applying images and sounds:
representing sounds in memory - Reviewing well: structure reviewing
Cognitive Strategies
- Practicing: repeating, formally practicing with sounds and writing system, recognizing and using formulas and patterns, recombining, practicing naturalistically
- Receiving and sending messages:
using resources for receiving and sending messages
- Analyzing and reasoning: reasoning deductively, translating, transferring
Compensation Strategies
- Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing: switching to the mother tongue, getting help, using mime or gesture, avoiding communication partially or totally, selecting the topic, adjusting or approximating the message, coining words, using circumlocution or synonym
Indirect Strategies
Metacognitive Strategies
- Centering your learning: over viewing and linking with already known material, paying attention, delaying speech production to focus on listening - Arranging and planning your learning:
finding out about language learning, organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a language task , planning for a language task, seeking practice opportunities - Evaluating your learning: self
monitoring, self evaluating
Affective Strategies
- Lowering your anxiety: using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation, using music, using laugher
- Encouraging yourself: making positive statements, taking risks wisely, rewarding yourself
- Taking your emotional temperature:
listening to your body, using a checklist, writing a language learning diary, discussing your feelings with someone else
Social Strategies
- Asking questions: asking for correction
- Cooperating with others: cooperating with peers, cooperating with proficient users of the new language
- Empathizing with others: developing cultural understanding, becoming aware of others‘ thoughts and feelings (Adapted from: Oxford, 1990:56-97 and 151-173 )
From the opinions‘ experts above, it can be concluded that the indicators of speaking learning strategies are divided into two main points genereally, namely, direct and indirect strategies. Then, each of the points are divided into three strategies. Direct strategies involve memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies. While, indirect strategies involve metocognitive, affective, and social strategies. The indicators of speaking learning strategies are used to depend on the type of speaking.
2. Students’ Speaking Motivation