When interpreting assessment results, including automated interpre
tations, psychologists take into account the purpose of the assess
ment as well as the various test factors, test-taking abilities, and other characteristics of the person being assessed, such as situational, per
sonal, linguistic, and cultural differences, that might affect psycholo
gists' judgments or reduce the accuracy of their interpretations. They indicate any significant limitations of their interpretations.
82 OAKLAND
Example. The saying, "A workman is only as good as his tools"
is applicable to the work of those who provide assessment services through the use of adapted tests. Assessment specialists who use an adapted test are familiar with its psychometric qualities. Knowl
edge of a test's validity in light of the intended purpose for which a test is being used is particularly critical in forming judgments as to the degree to which a test user may have confidence in making deci
sions based on a test's scores. In addition, the use of a test with a subgroups (e.g., those of a particular age, gender, or race) on whom psychometric data are absent may be inappropriate. Those who use adapted tests are expected to know the quality of their tools, to communicate this information accurately to others when requested, and to form judgments as to the applicability of these tools in light of research evidence. Groups 7 and 8 (Table 3.1) may be most affected by this standard.
9.07 Assessment by Unqualified Persons
Psychologists do not promote the use of psychological assessment techniques by unqualified persons, except when such use is con
ducted for training purposes with appropriate supervision.
Examples. Professional competencies of psychologists to use tests vary considerably both within and between countries (Oakland
& Hu, 1991). One cannot expect all persons who use tests to be qual
ified to do so. Some examples follow.
Within the United States, many psychologists seek to streng
then their professional practice and thus their income by offering assessment services despite having little preparation in test use.
Within Europe, professional and academic standards differ con
siderably from country to country. Psychologists in many Euro
pean countries also may have little to no training in test use. The preparation of psychologists in many South American countries favors theoretical and qualitative aspects of psychology and pro
vides little preparation in qualitative aspects, including assess
ment methods.
These and other conditions often result in psychologists being un
qualified to use tests. Furthermore, a lack of knowledge of specific features of an adapted test they intend to use (e.g., its validity with a specific group) also diminishes their competence to make wise and informed judgments. Groups 7-9 (Table 3.1) may be most affected by this standard.
9.08 Obsolete Tests and Outdated Test Results
(a) Psychologists do not base their assessment or intervention de
cisions or recommendations on data or test results that are out
dated for the current purpose.
(b) Psychologists do not base such decisions or recommendations on tests and measures that are obsolete and not useful for the cur
rent purpose.
Example. Measures of cognitive abilities (i.e., intelligence, aca
demic aptitudes, achievement) often are renormed every decade to en
sure their currency, given the belief that significant differences occur in these abilities during this period of time. Measures of temperament, personality, and self-concept generally are renormed less frequently, given the belief that significant time-related differences in these quali
ties do not occur as frequently Adapted tests also are subject to revision so as to prevent their obsolescence and ensure their currency Groups 1-5 and 6-8 (Table 3.1) may be most affected by this standard.
3.11 Psychological Services Delivered To or Through Organizations
(a) Psychologists delivering services to or through organizations provide information beforehand to clients and when appropriate those directly affected by the services about (1) the nature and objec
tives of the services, (2) the intended recipients, (3) which of the in
dividuals are clients, (4) the relationship the psychologist will have with each person and the organization, (5) the probable uses of ser
vices provided and information obtained, (6) who will have access to the information, and (7) limits of confidentiality. As soon as feasible, they provide information about the results and conclusions of such services to appropriate persons.
(b) If psychologists will be precluded by law or by organizational roles from providing such information to particular individuals or groups, they so inform those individuals or groups at the outset of the service.
9. 10 Explaining Assessment Results
Regardless of whether the scoring and interpretation are done by psychologists, by employees or assistants, or by automated or other
outside services, psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure that explanations of results are given to the individual or designated rep
resentative unless the nature of the relationship precludes provision of an explanation of results (such as in some organizational consult
ing, preemployment or security screenings, and forensic evalua
tions), and this fact has been clearly explained to the person being assessed in advance.
Example. The preceding two standards address the need to be sensitive to communicating information to clients and others, and thus underscore the importance of language-related issues when testing and conveying test results. As noted later, failure to attend to language-re- lated issues may attenuate a valid assessment of target qualities.
Language abilities rarely are assessed directly. Language typically is used as a vehicle of communication in order to test other personal qual
ities. One or more of the four language functions (e.g., reading, writing, listening, and speaking) typically are used to assess target qualities (e.g., vocational interests, intelligence, personality). Assurance that a per- son's language skills are sufficiently developed and do not attenuate the assessment of the target qualities should be provided (Cummins, 1984;
Oakland, Bernal, Holley, Natalicio, Leas, & Richard, 1980).
Knowledge of two important language qualities often is needed when using adapted tests: language competence and, among those who use two or more languages, language dominance.
Language competence refers a person's abilities to understand what others say, to speak, to read, and to write. Aperson may display deficient, average, or above average abilities in one or more of these four language functions. Those who are deficient in one or more functions should not be tested using methods that assume adequate skills in deficit functions. Also, methods used to deliver services, in
cluding explanations of test results, should be consistent with the recipient's language competence.
Knowledge of language dominance is important when assessing persons who are able to use one or more of the four language func
tions in two or more languages. Dominance refers to whether a per- son's language skills are less developed, about the same, or more developed in one than other languages. One typically tests using the more dominant language. Those who display comparable domi
nance in two languages may need to be tested in both languages.
Persons facile in two or more languages generally code informa
tion in the language in which it was acquired. For example, personal and social qualities may have been acquired in one's native language whereas academic skills may be been acquired in one's second lan
guage. When this occurs, measures of personal and social qualities should be assessed using one's native language whereas measures of academic qualities should utilize the second language.
Test results should be communicated to clients through their most dominant language and in light of their competence in using their dominant language. Groups 7-10 (Table 3.1) may be most af
fected by these standards.
9.11. Maintaining Test Security
The term test materials refers to manuals, instruments, protocols, and test questions or stimuli and does not include test data as de
fined in Standard 9.04, Release of Test Data. Psychologists make reasonable efforts to maintain the integrity and security of test ma
terials and other assessment techniques consistent with law and contractual obligations, and in a manner that permits adherence to this Ethics Code.
Example. Adapted tests should be considered important pro
fessional resources and intellectual property that warrant security.
Their use is jeopardized by not restricting their sale and use to prop
erly prepared professionals, allowing unqualified persons to review the test, photocopying test protocols and manuals, and in other ways allowing nonprofessionals access to the adapted test. Groups 1-5 and 7-10 (Table 3.1) may be most affected by this standard.
5.02 Statements by Others
(a) Psychologists who engage others to create or place public statements that promote their professional practice, products, or activities retain professional responsibility for such statements.
(b) Psychologists do not compensate employees of press, radio, television, or other communication media in return for publicity in a news item.
(c) A paid advertisement relating to psychologists' activities must be identified or clearly recognizable as such.
Example. Psychologists engaged in adapting tests are responsi
ble for supervising the manner in which such tests are communi
cated to others. Statements that suggest an adapted test is equivalent to the parent scale, provides equivalent scores, and in other ways suggest their equality or validity must be supportable by credible sci
entific data. Testimonial evidence is insufficient. Psychologists take reasonable steps to correct misleading statements. Groups 1-5 and 7-9 (Table 3.1) may be most affected by this standard.