Psychologists undertake ongoing efforts to develop and maintain their competence.
Example. Persons engaged in adapting tests and using them should devote a major part of their professional life to this work in order to become competent in its many complex features. Compe
tence is likely to require facility with languages, developmental and cognitive psychology, individual differences, cultural and social an
thropology, sociology, psychometrics and statistics, and knowledge of the settings in which the tests will be used. In addition, the mainte
nance and growth of knowledge and applications in any emerging field require an affiliation with area leaders and scholars, attendance at national and international conferences, and other fast-track meth
ods to acquire state-of-the-art knowledge. Information provided
through journals and books, although helpful, may be outdated by the time it is published. Groups 1-8 (Table 3.1) may be most affected by this standard.
2.04 Bases for Scientific and Professional Judgments Psychologists' work is based upon established scientific and profes
sional knowledge of the discipline.
Example. Many components important to the development of quality adapted tests and their use are well established, strong, and long-standing. For example, quantitative methods associated with test development, including those to establish norms and estimate reliability and validity, have a long tradition in Western psychology and constitute some of the strongest pillars of psychology (e.g., Anastasi & Urbina, 1997; Embretson & Hershberger, 1999;
Haladyna, 1999; McDonald, 1999). Conceptual and theoretical ad
vances in test development during the last two decades also contrib
ute to our institutional strength (e.g., Byrne, 1998: Loehlin, 1998;
Schumacker & Marcoulides, 1998). Thus, the basis for scientific judgments rests on a firm foundation.
In addition, professional judgment in using tests also finds sup
port in a 100 year tradition of using tests to make practical decisions about individuals and groups, in the various graduate professional programs that prepare applied professionals to use tests, and in a rich scientific literature on test use (e.g., Sattler, 1988).
This knowledge provides a rich legacy. This knowledge base is vital to professionals involved in adapting tests. This knowledge is especially critical to the work of those who design and develop adapted tests and in other ways assist in their adaptation. This knowledge is less critical yet still helpful to those who use adapted tests as well as consumers of results from studies that rely on adapted tests. If asked, professionals should be able to refer to scientific and professional literature as a basis for their work. All groups (Table 3.1) may be affected by this standard.
2.01 Boundaries of Competence
(a) Where scientific or professional knowledge in the discipline of psychology establishes that an understanding of factors associated with age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socio
economic status is essential for effective implementation of their services or research, psychologists have or obtain the training, ex
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perience, consultation, or supervision necessary to ensure the competence of their services, or they make appropriate referrals....
Example. The study of individual differences in cognitive and other personal qualities gave rise to the discipline of psychology. Psy
chology remains committed to the study of individual differences.
The study of individual differences often extends to the study of group differences. Research and practice in psychology have re
vealed that reliable and important differences in cognitive and other personal qualities exist as a function of age, gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other demographic qualities. These dif
ferences often are revealed through test data (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Jensen, 1980).
However, some do not accept these research findings and in
stead believe group differences are due to biased and invalid tests (e. g., Mercer, 1973; Oakland, 1977; Reynolds & Brown, 1984). The work of those engaged in adapting tests and using them occurs in social and cultural contexts. The views and attitudes of the general public often are strongly voiced, express important points, and should not be ignored.
Those engaged in adapting tests and using them should be sensi
tive to views and attitudes that tests are likely to be inherently invalid when used with different groups within one country and especially when used cross-nationally. Efforts to ensure that tests used with dif
ferent groups have comparable validity and equilibrated scores are needed to overcome these negative expectations (Hambleton, 1994, 2001; see also chap. 1, this volume).
Adapted tests should be used only after demonstrating suitable psychometric qualities based on data acquired from the target popu
lations. In addition, professionals who hold biased attitudes toward one or more groups (e.g., age, gender, race, ethnicity, socioeco
nomic status) that may affect their work take steps to overcome their biases or refer work to others who lack these biases. Groups 1-5 and 7-11 (Table 3.1) may be most affected by this standard.
l.0l Misuse of Psychologists' Work
If psychologists learn of misuse or misrepresentation of their work, they take reasonable steps to correct or minimize the misuse or mis
representation.
Example. On occasion, professionals may be asked to engage in adapting tests or using them when the work seemingly has dubi
ous merit. For example, although possessing knowledge that a sam
ple is unrepresentative of the target population, professionals may be told to utilize an existing data set, perhaps even to duplicate subsamples, in an effort to acquire larger or more representative norms or to establish other psychometric qualities. Applied psychol
ogists may be told to use an adapted test that lacks empirical validity and to describe it as comparable to one of the standard tests used in the industry. These conditions should be avoided.
An adapted test that appears to be valid, based on face validity standards, should not be used if technical evidence that supports its validity for use with the target group and for specific purposes is lack
ing. Psychologists do not engage in activities in which their abilities and skills are likely to be misused. Professionals are obligated to speak out when abuses and misuses occur and take reasonable steps to correct or minimize them. Groups 6, 8, and 9 (Table 3.1) may be most affected by this standard.
3.05 Multiple Relationships
(a) A multiple relationship occurs when a psychologist is in a pro
fessional role with a person and (1) at the same time is in another role with the same person, (2) at the same time is in a relationship with a person closely associated with or related to the person with whom the psychologist has the professional relationship, or (3) promises to enter into another relationship in the future with the person or a person closely associated with or related to the person.
A psychologist refrains from entering into a multiple relationship if the multiple relationship could reasonably be expected to im
pair the psychologist's objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing his or her functions as a psychologist, or otherwise risks exploitation or harm to the person with whom the profes
sional relationship exists.
Multiple relationships that would not reasonably be expected to cause impairment or risk exploitation or harm are not unethical.
(b) If a psychologist finds that, due to unforeseen factors, a po
tentially harmful multiple relationship has arisen, the psycholo
gist takes reasonable steps to resolve it with due regard for the best interests of the affected person and maximal compliance with the Ethics Code.
(c) When psychologists are required by law, institutional policy, or extraordinary circumstances to serve in more than one role in ju
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dicial or administrative proceedings, at the outset they clarify role expectations and the extent of confidentiality and thereafter as changes occur.