At.the.dawn.of.a.new.century,.alcohol.prevention.practitioners,.government.agencies,.
and.researchers.continue.the.age-old.quest.to.reduce.the.problems.of.alcohol.in.soci- ety..Although.many.strategies.have.been.tried—from.increased.penalties,.to.adver- tising.restrictions,.to.taxes.and.price.controls—the.most.essential.element.has.been.
ignored:.that.of.perceptions..People’s.perceptions.closely.guide.their.behaviors.and.
attitudes;.thus,.the.way.in.which.individuals.perceive.how.alcohol.is.consumed.and.
regulated.is.key.to.the.success.or.failure.of.any.alcohol.policy.or.program..Effective.
long-term.solutions.require.prevention.leaders.who.can.implement.strategies.to.steer.
public.perceptions.about.alcohol,.and.thereby.transform.social.norms.of.alcohol.use.
The.first.part.of.this.discussion.will.address.the.historical.background.and.con- text.for.prevention.efforts,.and.describe.the.integral.relationship.between.percep- tions,. policies,. and. social. norms.. Part. two. will. address. strategies. for. correcting.
misperceptions.that.can.set.the.stage.for.transforming.the.culture.of.alcohol.over.
the.next.100.years.
Section 1: Perceptions, Policies, and Social Norms
Background
The.history.of.alcohol.control.efforts.in.the.United.States.is.many.centuries.old..
From.America’s.earliest.colonial.days.to.the.present,.strategies.aimed.at.impacting.
alcohol-related.norms.have.encompassed.an.ever-changing.array.of.philosophies.
The.Montana.Model.of.Social.Norms.Marketing...149 Step.1:.Planning.and.Environmental.Advocacy...149 Step.2:.Baseline.Data...150 Step.3:.Message.Development...150 Step.4:.Market.Plan...150 Step.5:.Pilot.Test.and.Refine.Materials... 151 Step.6:.Implement.Campaign... 151 Step.7:.Evaluation... 151 Conclusion:.Transforming.Culture.over.the.Next.100.Years... 151 Research.Recommendations...152 References...152
Perceptions, Policies, and Social Norms n 141 and.social.policy.experiments.(Langton.1996)..As.early.as.1327,.England.had.tried.
and.failed.to.control.drunkenness.by.limiting.the.number.of.establishments.that.
could.sell.alcoholic.beverages.(Ray.and.Ksir.1999)..Six.hundred.years.later,.America.
enacted.the.18th.Amendment.and.launched.“the.noble.experiment”.of.prohibition,.
which.today.is.regarded.as.a.failed.attempt.to.legislate.morality.and.social.change.
(Langton.1996,.p..166)..Prohibition.was.seen.as.a.simple.solution.to.a.complex.
social.problem,.“by.which,.in.relation.to.more.than.100,000,000.people,.age-old.
evils.could.with.one.stroke.be.eliminated”.(Fosdick.and.Scott.1933,.p..5)..When.
the.prohibition.era.officially.ended.in.1933,.so.too.ended.our.naiveté.and.our.hope.
for.a.magical.policy.that.could.mandate.the.improvement.of.social.behavior.
Since.the.repeal.of.prohibition,.prevention.efforts.have.been.characterized.by.
see-sawing.policies.and.shifting.of.public.sentiments.that.demonstrate.how.easily.
the.pendulum.swings.from.one.extreme.to.another,.moving.the.locus.of.control.from.
the.individual.to.the.society.and.back.again,.or.switching.the.focus.of.prevention.
between.education.and.enforcement.(Fosdick.and.Scott.1933;.Engs.1990;.Calahan.
1991;.Goldberg.2004)..To.keep.the.public.from.rejecting.or.reacting.poorly.to.laws.
that.they.perceive.as.overly.liberal.or.too.stringent,.it.is.necessary.to.balance.social.
behaviors.and.attitudes.with.policy.(Posner.2000)..The.key.to.successfully.balanc- ing.the.relationship.between.law.and.social.norms.is.the.element.of.perception..The.
public’s.perception.of.the.culture.of.alcohol.and.the.laws.designed.to.regulate.it.
are.as.influential.as.the.culture.and.laws.themselves..The.challenge.for.the.field.of.
alcohol.prevention.throughout.the.next.100.years.is.to.promote.interventions.that.
balance.the.three.domains.of.perceptions,.policies,.and.social.norms.
The Three-Tiered System of Alcohol Control
At.the.end.of.national.prohibition,.federal.control.over.alcohol.was.returned.to.
individual.states.(Ray.and.Ksir.1999)..Many.of.the.social.evils.of.the.pre-Prohibi- tion.era.resulted.from.excessive.promotion.by.the.suppliers.and.retailers.of.alcohol,.
who.were.often.one.and.the.same.(Whitman.2003)..The.public.perception.about.
these. “tied-house”. arrangements. was. that. they. encouraged. irresponsible. alcohol.
consumption,. allowing. purveyors. to. push. to. increase. sales,. no. matter. what. the.
societal.costs.(WSWA.1999)..The.three-tiered.system.of.alcohol.control.broke.this.
monopoly.by.dividing.the.alcohol.distribution.system.into.three.parts—suppliers,.
wholesalers,.and.retailers.(Fosdick.and.Scott.1933;.Whitman.2003).
In.the.forward.to.Toward Liquor Control.(Fosdick.and.Scott.1933),.the.book.
that.concretized.the.three-tiered.system,.John.D..Rockefeller,.Jr.,.describes.how.
perceptions.determine.how.the.imposition.of.alcohol.law.ultimately.impacts.social.
behavior..He.writes:
Men.cannot.be.made.good.by.force..In.the.end,.intelligent.lawmaking.
rests.on.the.knowledge.or.estimate.of.what.will.be.obeyed..Law.does.
not.enforce.itself..The.Eighteenth.Amendment.embodied.an.ideal,.but.
could.succeed.only.with.the.support.of.public.opinion..(p..xi)
He.goes.on.to.note.that.prohibition.failed.because.of.inattention.to.the.social.
norms.of.the.day:.“the.majority.of.people.in.the.country.were.not.willing.to.sup- port.the.aim.of.total.abstinence,.at.least.when.it.was.attempted.through.coercion”
(p..vii).
Prohibition.sparked.a.major.awakening.to.the.powerful.relationship.between.the.
legal.and.social.communities,.and.the.realization.that.“no.system.of.liquor.control.
could.be.successful.which.does.not.command.the.approval.of.the.community”.(Fos- dick.and.Scott.1933,.p..9)..Ever.since,.countless.attempts.have.been.made.to.control.
alcohol’s.impacts.upon.society.through.strategies.that.have.focused.on.the.individual.
drinker,.the.drinking.context.or.the.social-ecologic.relationship.between.the.two.
(Stokols.1992;.Wallack.1997;.Barr.1999)..It.is.only.recently,.however,.that.a.model.
has.begun.to.emerge.which.explicitly.captures.the.interplay.between.perceptions,.
alcohol.policies,.and.social.norms.
Comprehending a Complex Culture of Alcohol
Although.the.problems.caused.by.alcohol.have.been.around.as.long.as.alcohol.itself,.
there.is.a.constant.sense.of.urgency.surrounding.them.(Hawkins.et.al.,.1992)..New,.
pressing.issues.appear.to.sprout.overnight..Recent.examples.include.movements.to.
ban. alcohol. vapor. machines,. which. combine. pressurized. oxygen. with. alcohol. in.
the.form.of.a.mist.(Join.Together.2004);.controversies.associated.with.underage.
drinking.and.youth-preferred.products.such.as.“alcopops”.(Lee.2002),.“hard.lem- onade”.(Anderson.1999),.or.wine.coolers.(Goldberg.et.al.,.1994);.and.numerous.dis- putes.over.alcohol.advertising.(Kelly.et.al.,.2002;.Saffer.and.Dave.2002).and.online.
marketing.(Carroll.and.Donovan.2002).
This.short.list.begins.to.illustrate.the.complex,.ever-changing.context.in.which.
the.prevention.of.alcohol-related.problems.resides.(Klitzner.and.Stewart.1991)..The.
following.excerpt.from.a.speech.attributed.to.a.Midwestern.senator.around.the.early.
1900s.brilliantly.depicts.the.political.complexity.of.issues.surrounding.alcohol:
…You.have.asked.me.how.I.feel.about.whiskey..Well,.here’s.how.I.stand.
on.the.question..If,.when.you.say.whiskey,.you.mean.that.devil’s.brew;.
the.poison.spirit;.the.bloody.monster.that.defiles.innocence,.dethrones.
reason,.destroys.the.home,.and.creates.misery.and.poverty;.yes,.literally.
takes.the.bread.from.the.mouths.of.little.children;.if.you.mean.that.evil.
drink.that.topples.the.religious.man.from.the.pinnacle.of.righteousness,.
gracious.living,.and.causes.him.to.descend.to.the.pit.of.degradation,.
despair,.shame,.and.helplessness,.then.I.am.certainly.against.it.with.all.
my.heart.
Perceptions, Policies, and Social Norms n 143 But.if.when.you.say.whiskey,.you.mean.the.oil.of.conversation,.the.phil- osophic.wine,.the.ale.consumed.when.good.fellows.get.together.that.
puts.a.song.in.their.hearts.and.laughter.on.their.lips.and.the.warm.glow.
of.contentment.in.their.eyes;.if.you.mean.Christmas.cheer;.if.you.mean.
the.stimulating.drink.that.puts.the.spring.in.an.old.man’s.footstep.on.a.
frosty.morning;.if.you.mean.the.drink.whose.sale.put.untold.millions.of.
dollars.into.our.treasury.which.are.used.to.provide.tender.care.for.our.
little.crippled.children,.our.blind,.our.deaf.and.dumb,.our.pitifully.aged.
and.infirm,.to.build.highways.and.hospitals.and.schools,.then.certainly.I.
am.in.favor.of.it..This.is.my.stand,.and.I.will.not.compromise..(Svendsen.
1986)
One.hundred.years.later,.the.complexity.of.alcohol’s.role.in.our.culture.remains.
essentially.the.same.
Perceptions, Alcohol Policies, and Social Norms
There.are.many.definitions.of.social.norms;.for.the.purposes.of.this.discussion,.
social.norms.are.simply.the.actual.majority.behaviors.or.attitudes.in.any.given.com- munity.or.group..For.example,.if.most.people.in.a.community.do.not.drink,.then.
not.drinking.is.the.social.norm..Not.drinking.is.normal,.acceptable,.perhaps.even.
expected.in.that.population.
Perceptions.of.social.norms.are.people’s.beliefs about.the.actual.behavioral.or.
attitudinal.norms.of.their.peers..If.the.majority.of.people.in.a.community.perceive.
that.most.people.drink.to.excess,.then.drinking.to.excess.is.the.perceived.social.
norm..Perceptions.of.social.norms.are.some.of.the.strongest.predictors.of.future.
health.behavior.because.people.tend.to.behave.in.the.way.they.perceive.to.be.most.
typical.or.accepted.(Berkowitz.1997)..When.people.perceive.that.there.is.social.
support.for.or.against.certain.activities,.they.are.more.likely.to.either.change.or.
continue.their.behavior.to.act.in.accordance.with.what.they.believe.is.normative.
The.relationship.between.perceptions.and.behavior.is.complicated.by.the.fact.
that.most.people.do.not.accurately.perceive.the.social.norms.of.their.peers..Most.
people.make.positive.decisions.about.their.health.and.safety..That.is.almost.uni- versally.the.norm..For.example,.social.norms.studies.have.found.that.most.people.
drink.moderately,.wear.seatbelts,.and.are.drug.and.tobacco.free.(Malenfant.et.al.,.
1996;.Linkenbach.and.Perkins.2003a,.2003b;.Perkins.and.Craig.2003)..However,.
social.norms.studies.have.also.found.that.people.hold.remarkably.exaggerated.views.
of.the.risk-taking.behavior.of.their.peers.(Perkins.2003)..These.are.misperceptions of social norms.
Widespread.misperceptions.have.been.documented.regarding.alcohol.norms..
Studies. have. found. that. misperceptions. of. alcohol. use. are. held. by. all. members.
of.campus.communities.including.undergraduate.and.graduate.students,.faculty.
and.staff,.students.and.student.leaders.(Berkowitz.and.Perkins.1986b;.University.
of.Michigan.1993;.Berkowitz.1997)..They.have.been.documented.in.a.statewide.
sample.of.young.adults.both.in.college.and.not.in.college.(Linkenbach.and.Perkins.
2003b),.and.among.middle.and.high.school.students.(Beck.and.Trieman.1996;.
Botvin.et.al.,.2001;.D’Amico.et.al.,.2001;.Haines,.Barker,.and.Rice.2003;.Perkins.
and.Craig.2003;.Rice.2003;.Thombs.et.al.,.1997).
Misperceptions.of.social.norms.are.the.“hidden.risk.factor”.that.is.not.addressed.
in.most.prevention.efforts..There.are.more.than.twenty.published.studies.in.which.
misperceptions.are.positively.correlated.with.drinking.behavior.or.predict.how.indi- viduals.drink.(Marks.et.al.,.1992;.Perkins.1985,.1987;.Prentice.and.Miller.1993;.
Beck.and.Trieman.1996;.Perkins.and.Wechsler.1996;.Thombs.et.al.,.1997;.Page.et.
al.,.1999;.Steffian.1999;.Thombs.1999;.Clapp.and.McDonnell.2000;.Botvin.et.al.,.
2001;.D’Amico.et.al.,.2001;.Sher.et.al.,.2001;.Korcuska.and.Thombs.2003;.Kypri.
and.Langley.2003;.Trockel.et.al.,.2003;.Mattern.and.Neighbors.2004;.Lewis.and.
Neighbors,.2004).
These.misperceptions.of.social.norms.about.alcohol.consumption.have.profound.
impacts.on.prevention.and.enforcement.efforts..If.people.believe.that.the.majority.
misuses.or.overuses.alcohol,.they.perceive.that.the.social.norm.opposes.the.poli- cies.and.laws.designed.to.reduce.dangerous.drinking..This.creates.a.paradigm.that.
falsely.dichotomizes.social.norms.and.the.law,.setting.them.at.odds.with.each.other.
when,.in.fact,.the.law.supports.and.enforces.the.behavior.that.is.already.practiced.
and.approved.by.the.large.majority..Further,.stringent.punishments.which.produce.
criminal.shame.can.have.perverse.effects:.punishments.can.actually.become.badges.
of.status.in.communities.that.do.not.trust.the.government.or.enforcing.body.(Pos- ner.2000).
The.process.of.establishing.healthy.social.environments.concerning.alcohol.is.
dependent.upon.equalizing.and.stabilizing.the.relationship.between.perceptions,.
policies,.and.social.norms.(Figure.8.1).
PERCEPTIONS
POLICIES SOCIAL NORMS