C. Learning Strategy
2. Kinds of Vocabulary Learning Strategy
According to Oxford, (2003) the taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) is divided into two groups direct strategies (which include:
memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies) andindirect strategies (which include: metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, social strategies). Meanwhile, Schmitt , (2003) notion on vocabulary learning strategies and classifies vocabulary learning strategies into five groups:
determination strategies, social strategies, memory strategies, cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies.
Table 2.1. Schmitt Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) Types of
VLS
Definition Examples
Determination strategies
Find new words meanings without help of others;
Learners determine the meaning of foreign words by
Predicting the words meaning using reference material
consulting reference materials such as dictionaries, inferring meaning from context, and identifying the parts of speech and their constituent elements.
Social strategies
Used by asking teachers, classmates, and native speakers to decide word meanings. In short, conversation and learning from each other are involved.
They can also be used to stabilize the knowledge by calling out to mother-tongue speakers or even teachers.
Predicting the words meaning by asking people around.
Memory strategies
Memory strategies historically known as Mnemonics, help learners acquire new words by linking new words to background knowledge. It will help learners remember new words.
Some form of imagery or grouping to remembering vocabulary
Cognitive strategies
Cognitive deal with mechanical aspects of acquiring vocabulary and are not mental processing, the most basic language learning strategy types as written and verbal repetition.
Repeating words Labeling word
Making list of new word
Metacognitive strategies
These methods reflect learners' ability to identify learning opportunities and then record and review those experiences. In other words, metacognitive techniques include monitoring, decision- making and assessing progress
Using English language media such as: radio, newspaper, and television.
Studying new words many times
(Schmitt 2011)
Meanwhile, Gu & Johnson, (1996) classify vocabulary learning strategies into some parts. Those are dictionnairy, note – taking, guessing, and
memorization strategy which is divided into memory (rehearsal), and memory (encoding) strategy.
a. Metacognitive regulation
Gu & Johnson (1996) define Metacognition is defined as "thinking about one's own thinking." They asserted that metacognitive methods energise the mind and result in increased learning and performance.
Additionally, teachers may assist second language learners in developing critical abilities such as comprehending and directing cognitive processes. Additionally, they highlighted that one of the most critical metacognitive strategies is to assess the efficacy of method application. Self-reflection, debriefing talks following strategy practice, learning journals in which students record the outcomes of their strategy applications, and checklists of strategies utilized can all be used to help students reflect throughout the cycle of learning. At this level of metacognition, the entire cycle of strategy formulation, selection, implementation, monitoring, and orchestration is examined.
b. Guessing strategies
According to the study, guessing is an effective approach for memorizing language. The approach enables students to guess the meaning of words without consulting one another or consulting a dictionary, but the guessing strategy enables them to do so based on the context. This technique is referred to as contextual guessing tactics.
According to Gaskins (2004), a language learner sees the majority of
words in a book as sight words and utilizes that knowledge to decode the meaning of unfamiliar terms. When language learners are unable to comprehend a particular text due to a lack of required vocabulary, grammar, or other linguistic factors. Gaskins expresses another viewpoint (2004) Contextual guessing methods may be constructed utilizing a range of language and non-linguistic cues. Language learners deduce the meaning of a new phrase by reading the material immediately preceding or after the unfamiliar word. Other language cues, such as semantic or syntactic information, are frequently employed by learners to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar words.
When it comes to non-linguistic cues, language learners rely on their grasp of meaning, document structure, and fundamental awareness of their surroundings.
c. Dictionary strategies
A portion of language learning techniques includes the use of a dictionary as one of the tools for word solution. Learners can consult dictionaries to assist them in interpreting the content and reading unfamiliar terms. It is critical to stress, however, that we do not consider the use of dictionaries to be restricted to word attack techniques. A single word can have several definitions, and the most appropriate one is often determined by context. On the other hand, Nation argues that language learners are capable of recognizing a word inside a phrase. They may, however, realize that the offered sentence's
context is nonsensical. Additionally, estimates about the meaning of an unfamiliar term are rarely accurate (Nation, 2011). Richars et al., (2019) demonstrates that students' judgments about the meaning of foreign words are not always accurate. As a result, proponents of dictionary usage say that professors should enable students to reference dictionaries to ascertain the specific meaning of an unknown word in a particular context. Dictionaries are the primary source of information about words in a language, and learners consult dictionaries to verify that their assumptions about unfamiliar words are correct in light of the context, and that having access to a dictionary enables learners to develop greater independence by allowing them to find appropriate interpretations for unfamiliar words in sentences without relying on teachers' explanations.
d. Note-taking strategies
Using a note-taking method is an easy way to increase your vocabulary knowledge. Typically, this is referred to as a personal vocabulary note.
According to Richards (2000:3), students must first feel prompted to learn vocabulary in order to successfully create personal vocabulary notes in class. Giving kids a fluency challenge that encourages them to use vocabulary they are unfamiliar with is an easy method to keep their attention and add personal vocabulary notes. This drill can be adapted to the kids' level. For instance, in a lower-level class, you may simply ask students to describe their neighborhoods or their weekend
activities. For upper-level schools, you may ask them to describe a recent film or event. Many students have developed the commendable habit of communicating only in "simple English," and it is vital to allow them to take personal vocabulary notes while speaking, telling them that they should continue to utilize "easy English" while developing their vocabulary.
e. Memory strategies (rehearsal)
Gu & Johnson, (1996) explain that A rehearsal approach entails the practicing of stuff repeatedly in order to comprehend it. When a learner is given simple facts to memorize, such as a list, he or she will frequently attempt to memorize it by reading it again. As a result of regular practice, the student's familiarity with the content develops.
Many people use rehearsal techniques to help them remember their social security number, phone number, or the items they intend to purchase at the grocery store, and they believe that rehearsal techniques should be used to acquire very small amounts of knowledge and are particularly useful for acquiring "foundation material." Prior to engaging in more complex learning, it is necessary to acquire basic knowledge. For example, knowledge of adjectives and the commutative characteristic of inclusion are necessary for performing more difficult vocabulary drill.
f. Memory strategies (Encoding)
Gu & Johnson, (1996) state that Memory encoding is the act of converting memories into a construct that can be processed endlessly by the brain. After information has been encoded, it can be retrieved from either short-term or long-term memory. At its most basic level, memory encoding is like to clicking the "save" button on a computer file. As long as the hard drive is not damaged, a file that has been saved can be restored. The word "recall" refers to the process through which previously encoded material is retrieved. Perception is the process of recognizing, organizing, and comprehending sensory data in order to perceive it in context, which is the initial step in the encoding phase. Sensory organs detect stimuli, and related impulses are transmitted to the thalamus of the human brain, where they are integrated into a single memory. After that, the hippocampus evaluates the experience and determines if it is significant enough to be kept in long-term memory.
g. Activation Strategies
Nation (2011) defines activation techniques as "tools that may be employed at the beginning of a class to assist students in preparing for future progress." Learn how to engage children quickly, concentrate their attention, and build essential connections for new learning via the use of activating tactics. Additionally, you will discover a range of novel ways for assisting students in connecting new learning to past information, as well as practical techniques for establishing
background knowledge in situations when students have had minimal exposure to required subject.
Hedge (2000), explains that acquiring new vocabulary Language learners must employ a variety of procedures in order to comprehend, categorize, and store them in their mental lexicon. She suggested the following two primary ways for memorizing vocabulary items:
a. Category 1: cognitive strategies 1) Making associations
2) Learning words in groups 3) Exploring range of meaning
4) Using key words, a keyword is a word chosen from the mother tongue which sounds like the new word in the second or native language, and where it is possible to make some kind of association between the two words
5) Reading on for evidence in the context of the text 6) Inference strategy
b. Category 2: metacognitive strategies
1) Consciously collecting words from authentic contexts 2) Making word cards
3) Categorising words into lists
4) Reactivating vocabulary in internal dialogue
5) Making a word-network of vocabulary associated with a particular item
Hedge (2000) categorized vocabulary learning processes into two broad categories: cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies refer to techniques for both utilizing and comprehending words.
Metacognitive strategies entail preparing for and planning for learning, selecting and implementing learning strategies, monitoring and chestrating various types of tactics, and assessing the success of strategy use and learning.
A taxonomy of kinds of vocabulary learning strategies offered by Nation (2001), classify under three general classes of strategies as follows:
a. Category 1: Planning (choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it)
1) Choosing words, the aspects of word knowledge.
2) Choosing strategies and planning repetition
b. Category 2: Sources (finding information about words) 1) Analysing the word and using word parts
2) Learning from word cards and using context 3) Using a dictionary
4) Consulting a reference source in L1 and L2 5) Using parallels in L1and L2
c. Category 3: Processes (establishing knowledge) 1) Noticing
2) Retrieving and generating
Nation (2001) proposes a taxonomy of vocabulary acquisition techniques, which may be classified into three broad categories: planning,
information gathering, and knowledge establishment. The category Planning is subdivided into four subcategories. Seven subcategories were created from the Sources category, while three subcategories were created from the Processes category. According to the characteristics of all three major categories of vocabulary learning strategies, it is reasonable to assume that the vocabulary learning strategies proposed by Nation (2001) include both cognitive and metacognitive strategies, as both categories encompass a diverse range of strategies of varying complexity.
Lawson and Hogben (2011) divided the individual vocabulary acquisition mechanisms they identified into four distinct groups. There are several types of elaboration. They include repetition, word feature analysis, simple elaboration, and complex elaboration.
a. Category 1: repetition 1) Reading of related word 2) Simple rehearsal
3) Writing of word and meaning 4) Cumulative rehearsal
5) Testing
b. Category 2: word feature analysis 1) Spelling
2) Word classification 3) Suffix
c. Category 3: simple elaboration
1) Sentence translation 2) Simple use of context 3) Appearance similarity 4) Sound link
d. Category 4: complex elaboration 1) Complex use of context 2) Paraphrase
3) nemonic 3. Gender
Gender is the result of a synthesis of nature and culture, biological characteristics and acquired behaviors (Zoghi et al., 2013). In Indonesia, these pairings result in the acceptance of two distinct genders: male and female.
Indeed, Indonesia may be classified as a gender-balanced or equitable country.
However, equality in terms of population does not translate into equality in numerous fields, most notably education. Additionally, it demonstrated that Indonesia need far greater focus to achieve gender equality, particularly in education.
According to Hedge (2000), gender is a socially constructed distinction between feminine and masculine characteristics. It is distinct from sexuality.
Sex refers to the biological distinctions between men and females. According to Gu & Johnson, (1996), "sex refers to biological distinctions between men and females. It has to do with the visible distinction between their genitals and their reproductive physiological activities." Thus, sex is not synonymous with
gender. It is a biological distinction between humans that involves genitals and physiological activities associated with reproduction. While "Gender is inextricably linked to culture and the social divide into "masculine" and
"feminine" categories." Thus, gender refers to the characteristics, preferences, aptitudes, duties, and obligations of men and women in a community.
To summarize, gender is distinct from sex. Gender refers to men and women's roles and obligations in the family, community, and culture. It is the process through which men and women socially acquire their femininity or masculinity.