1.1 Present concentrations of greenhouse gases and their contribution to the natural and anthropogenic greenhouse effect (data from IPCC
(2007b) and Beising (2006)) . . . 6 2.1 Composition of hard and brown coals (Effenberger 2000) and Alstom
Power . . . 17 2.2 Coal minerals (Adrian et al. 1986) . . . 21 2.3 Main components of coal ash (Adrian et al. 1986) . . . 21 2.4 Macerals of brown and hard coals (Zelkowski 2004) . . . 24 2.5 World coal production and exports (in million tonnes) (IEA 2006) . . . 27 2.6 Biomass potential and utilisation in Germany (Schneider 2007) . . . 34 2.7 Biomass potential, current utilisation and share of PEC in different
regions of the world (Schneider 2007; Van Loo 2008; Kaltschmitt
et al. 2009) . . . 34 2.8 Amount of wastes in Germany (Becker et al. 2007) . . . 36 2.9 Components of biomass (% by wt) (Kicherer 1996) . . . 43 2.10 Fuel composition of biomass types (Kaltschmitt 2001; Lewandowski
1996; Hartmann and Strehler 1995; Clausen and Schmidt 1996;
Obernberger 1997; Spliethoff et al. 1996) . . . 46 2.11 Ash composition (%) of a wood (spruce) and a straw compared with
one hard and one brown coal type . . . 48 2.12 Densities (at a moisture content of 15%) of various biomasses
(kg/m3) (Kicherer 1996; Hartmann and Strehler 1995) . . . 48 2.13 Energy densities of various biomasses . . . 49 2.14 Composition of residual MSW (example) (Hoffmann 2008) . . . 50 2.15 Variations of fuel characteristics and the composition of residual
MSW in Germany (Effenberger 2000) . . . 50 2.16 Composition of various RDFs, showing the influence of the input
material (Fehrenbach et al. 2006) . . . 52 2.17 Fuel composition of sewage sludge (Gerhardt et al. 1997; Gerhardt
1998) . . . 54 4.1 Data for the reference power plant (Spliethoff and Abr¨oll 1985) . . . 80 4.2 Boiler losses for the reference power plant and for a new plant . . . 164
xxxi
xxxii List of Tables 4.3 Auxiliary power requirement breakdown for the reference and a new
power plant . . . 173 4.4 Pressure losses of the reference power plant and of an advanced
thermal power plant . . . 173 4.5 Chemical composition of boiler steels (Source: Alstom Power and
additions) . . . 187 4.6 Materials required for steam generator advancements . . . 207 4.7 Data concerning various advanced steam power plants (Billotet and
Joh¨anntgen 1995; Breuer et al. 1995; Eichholtz et al. 1994; Lambertz and Gasteiger 2003; Meier 2004; VGB 2004; Spliethoff and Abr¨oll 1985; Tippk¨otter and Scheffknecht 2004; K¨ohn 1993; Kjaer 1993;
Vattenfall 2007) . . . 209 5.1 Comparison of grate, fluidised bed and pulverised fuel firing systems . 222 5.2 Output ranges of firing systems . . . 222 5.3 Partial processes of coal combustion in firing systems . . . 225 5.4 Dust content of firing systems . . . 244 5.5 Comparison between circulating fluidised bed firing (CFBF) and
pulverised fuel firing systems (PFF) . . . 271 5.6 Emission limits of the EU Large Combustion Plant Directive
(Nalbandian 2007 . . . 277 5.7 Emission standards for solid fuels in Germany (17.BimSchV 2003;
13.BImSchV 2004) . . . 278 5.8 Capital and production costs of NOx reduction measures (data from
Wu 2002; Soud and Fukasawa 1996) . . . 307 5.9 Collection efficiency as a function of particle size (Soud 1995) . . . 321 5.10 Melting points of compounds in furnaces (Hein 1984) . . . 328 5.11 Eutectic mixtures with low melting points (Zelkowski 2004; Hein
1984) . . . 329 5.12 Slagging and fouling indices (Stultz and Kitto 1992; Zelkowski 2004;
Juniper 1995; Bals 1997) . . . 330 5.13 Chemical composition of ashes [% by wt.] (Peters and vom Berg
1992) . . . 342 5.14 Chemical parameters of FGD and natural gypsum [% by wt.] (Peters
and vom Berg 1992) . . . 343 5.15 Composition of lime-spray drying products [% by wt.] (Peters and
vom Berg 1992) . . . 344 5.16 Heavy metal concentrations of power plant residues in comparison
with maxima of the German Sewage Sludge Ordinance [mg/kg]
(Peters and vom Berg 1992) . . . 348 5.17 Eluate values of power plant products compared to the ordinance on
drinking water and water for food processing companies [mg/l] (DIN 38414, EULAT 1:10) (Peters and vom Berg 1992) . . . 349 5.18 Production and utilisation of by-products from coal-fired power
plants in Germany in 2006 (VGB 2008) . . . 350
List of Tables xxxiii 6.1 Typical flue gas emissions of woodchip combustion plants (Spliethoff
2000) . . . 373 6.2 Heating value and product gas composition for air- and steam-blown
gasification (Kaltschmitt 2001; FNR 2006; Knoef 2005) . . . 381 6.3 Tar and particle concentrations for different gasification systems
(Kaltschmitt 2001) . . . 382 6.4 Medium-to-large-scale fluidised bed biomass gasification plants
(Spliethoff 2001; Knoef 2005) . . . 385 6.5 Gas quality requirements for gas engines and gas turbines (FNR
2006; Spliethoff 2001; Kaltschmitt 2009) . . . 390 6.6 Removal efficiencies of different tar cleaning devices (Kaltschmitt
2001) . . . 397 6.7 Thermal treatment of waste in Germany in 2006
(Statistisches Bundesamt 2008) . . . 402 6.8 Historical development of total waste treatment capacity in classical
EfW plants in Germany (UBA 2005b) . . . 406 6.9 Installed capacity (in 2008) of the processes for the pyrolysis or
gasification of waste realised in Japan in the 2000s (Themelis 2007) . . 418 6.10 Overview of measures to increase efficiencies of electricity generation
(R1 criterion of European Draft Waste Framework Directive is 0.6 and 0.65 after 2009) (Gohlke and Spliethoff 2007). D=Germany,
I=Italy, NL=Netherlands, E=Spain . . . 427 7.1 Possible development of combined cycle processes (Bohn 2005) . . . 474 7.2 Comparison of power plant processes . . . 476 7.3 Permissible guideline concentrations for dusts and trace elements
in the hot gas for gas turbine V94.3 (now SGT5-4000F) (data from
Jansson 1996; Mitchell 1997) . . . 479 7.4 Required flue gas purity for pressurised pulverised coal combustion . . . 480 7.5 Summary of temperature windows for use of particulate matter
collection technologies . . . 481 7.6 Summary data for PBFBC plants currently in service (data from Wu
2006 and additions) . . . 499 7.7 Emissions from PBFBC plants in operation (Wu 2006) . . . 503 7.8 Classification of alkalis in coal . . . 523 7.9 Saturation-phase pressures and concentrations of alkali compounds at
1,173 K (Scandrett and Clift 1984) . . . 525 7.10 Composition by weight of additives for alkali capture (Punjak et al.
1989) . . . 528 7.11 PPCC Development Programme (F¨orster et al. 2005) . . . 539 7.12 PPCC cycle calculations (Schuknecht 2003) . . . 541 7.13 Suitability of ceramic materials as construction materials for
high-temperature heat exchangers (Baum 2001; Kuhnle et al. 1997;
Fichtner 1992) . . . 554 7.14 Data for ceramic materials compared to other recuperator materials
(Kainer 1988) . . . 555
xxxiv List of Tables 7.15 Gasification reactions (Higman and van der Burgt 2008),
(J¨untgen and van Heek 1981) . . . 579 7.16 Characteristics of different gasification processes . . . 586 7.17 Gas quality of dry and wet feeding (Radtke et al. 2005), (Uhde 2008) . 591 7.18 Data for IGCC power plants in operation (Hannemann et al. 2003;
Lako 2004; Tampa Electric 2002; Tampa Electric 2004; Holt 2003;
Coca 2003) . . . 614 8.1 Energy requirements for liquefaction and freezing (G¨ottlicher 1999) . . 631 8.2 Technical potential of geological storage options (IPCC 2005) . . . 634 8.3 Composition of the flue gases of firing systems with air and with
oxygen (fuel: hard coal,λ=1.15; gas properties from Kretzschmar et al. 2005) . . . 653 8.4 Comparison of CCS technologies . . . 663