Model neglecting soil-pipe interaction

5.2 Models for soil-pipe interaction analysis

5.2.1 Model neglecting soil-pipe interaction

Pipe is assumed to be much softer than soil and cannot provide any resistance to ground motions. Hence, the pipe perfectly conforms to free-field ground motions, which are the soil displacements induced by the propagation of seismic waves in the absence of excavation and structures. The free-field ground motions can be computed by either analytical solutions or numerical simulations.

5.2.1.1 Rayleigh surface wave in a homogeneous half-space by analytical expression

Let𝜔 is the angular frequency, 𝑐_𝛼, 𝑐_𝛽, and 𝑐_𝑅 are the phase velocities of compressional, shear, and Rayleigh waves, respectively. 𝑘_𝛼 = 𝜔/𝑐_𝛼, 𝑘_𝛽 = 𝜔/𝑐_𝛽, and 𝑘_𝑅 = 𝜔/𝑐_𝑅 are the corresponding wavenumbers. The displacements along x and y axes of Rayleigh surface wave, denoted as𝑢_𝑥 and𝑢_𝑦, are expressed as (Viktorov,1967)

𝑢_𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑘_𝑅 𝑒^𝑞𝑅𝑦− 2𝑞_𝑅𝑠_𝑅 𝑘²

𝑅+𝑠²

𝑅

𝑒^𝑠𝑅𝑦

!

sin(𝑘_𝑅𝑥−𝜔𝑡) , (5.1)

𝑢_𝑦 =−𝐴𝑞_𝑅 𝑒^𝑞𝑅𝑦− 2𝑘²

𝑅

𝑘²

𝑅+𝑠²

𝑅

𝑒^𝑠𝑅𝑦

!

cos(𝑘_𝑅𝑥−𝜔𝑡) , (5.2)

where A is an arbitrary constant,𝑞_𝑅 = q

𝑘²

𝑅−𝑘²

𝛼, 𝑠_𝑅 =q 𝑘²

𝑅−𝑘²

𝛽, and𝑡is time.

5.2.1.2 Rayleigh surface wave in a heterogeneous half-space by finite element simulation

For basin configuration, the harmonic Rayleigh surface wave propagates from left to right, originates from stiff soil (soil 2) and reaches softer soil (soil 1). The reflection at the basin circumference and the wave interference inside the basin make the problem become more complex. The free-field ground motions inside the basin can be computed by FE analyses.

Γ

_e

Γ

u

⁰_b

u

⁰_e

Rayleigh O

y

x C

Figure 5.2: Geometry of the truncated domain with boundariesΓandΓ_e.

In FE analyses, the effective input forces are defined as equivalent input forces which are applied to generate a predetermined displacement field. We used the domain reduction method proposed by Bielak et al. (2003) to compute the effective input forces of the predetermined Rayleigh surface wave displacement field of soil 2. The configuration of the truncated domain is shown in Fig.5.2. The effective input forces 𝑷^eff_b and 𝑷^eff_e applied on

the boundariesΓandΓ_eat each time step are governed by

𝑷^eff_b =−𝑴_be𝒖¥⁰_e−𝑲_be𝒖⁰_e, (5.3) 𝑷^eff_e =𝑴_eb𝒖¥⁰_b+𝑲_eb𝒖⁰_b, (5.4) where 𝑴_be and 𝑴_eb are the off-diagonal quadrants of the mass matrices assembled from the single layer of finite elements between two boundariesΓand Γ_e, and 𝑲_be and 𝑲_eb are the off-diagonal quadrants of the corresponding stiffness matrices. For lumped mass, 𝑴_be and 𝑴_eb would be zero. 𝒖⁰_band𝒖⁰_e are the predetermined displacement vector of nodes on ΓandΓ_e, respectively.

The Fourier transform of an unwindowed sinusoidal function with frequency𝜔is non-zero only at ±𝜔. However, for the FE analyses, we consider the signal only within a finite interval of time while implying zero values outside that time interval, which is equivalent to multiplying the waveform with a rectangular function, leading to the spectral leakage phenomenon. It is therefore necessary to use a windowing technique to distribute the leakage spectrally, allowing interesting features of the signal to be observed. Moreover, the tapering property of the window function prevents numerical artifact induced by a sudden application of non-zero value of signal at the beginning of the FE analyses. The 𝑁-point Tukey (a.k.a tapered cosine) window technique is used in this study, defined by

𝑤(𝑡) =



















 1 2

1+cos 2𝜋

𝛼

(𝑡−𝛼/2) , for 0≤ 𝑡 <

𝛼 2

1, for 𝛼

2 ≤ 𝑡 <1− 𝛼 1 2

2

1+cos 2𝜋

𝛼

(𝑡−1+𝛼/2) , for 1− 𝛼

2 ≤ 𝑡 <1

(5.5)

where𝑡 is an 𝑁-point linearly spaced time vector. The parameter 𝛼is the ratio of cosine- tapered section length to the entire window length, henceforth taken as𝛼=0.5.

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

-0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01

ux uy

Figure 5.3: Displacements of Rayleigh waves as a function of: (a) depth; and (b) time.

The pattern of the Rayleigh wave displacements is illustrated in Fig.5.3(a). The displace- ment amplitudes ˆ𝑢_𝑥 and ˆ𝑢_𝑦, normalized with ˆ𝑢_𝑥0, are plotted as a function of dimensionless depth |𝑦|/𝜆_𝑅, where ˆ𝑢_𝑥0 is the amplitude of x-displacement at the ground surface 𝑦 = 0 and𝜆_𝑅 =2𝜋 𝑐_𝑅/𝜔is the wavelength of Rayleigh wave. Fig.5.3(b) shows time histories of the displacement components at the point (𝑥 , 𝑦) = (0,0), which are the multiplication of harmonic Rayleigh wave in Eqs. (5.1), (5.2) and Tukey window in Eq (5.5).

The x- and y-components of the vectors𝒖⁰

band𝒖⁰_e are predetermined with Eqs. (5.1), (5.2), and (5.5). We consider the Rayleigh wave propagates along the positive x-axis, starting at point𝑂(0,0). Because of the finite wave velocity,𝑢_𝑥 and𝑢_𝑦 at a point are zero when the waves have not reached that point yet, i.e., when𝑡 < 𝑘_𝑅𝑥/𝜔.

We wrote a subroutine incorporated into LS-DYNA solver to generate the Rayleigh surface wave propagation. The fidelity of this subroutine was verified for a case of Rayleigh wave propagating through a homogeneous elastic half-space soil domain, where analytical solution is available via Eqs. (5.1), (5.2), and (5.5). The input parameters for the verification problem are as follows: 𝜔 =2𝜋rad/s; the Poisson’s ratio, mass density, and shear modulus of soil domain are 𝜈 = 0.25, 𝜌 = 1800 kg/m³, and 𝜇 = 4.5 MPa, respectively; and the scalar 𝐴 in Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2) is 𝐴 = 0.5193. For FE analysis, the number of elements per wavelength is chosen as 𝑛_{𝑒 𝑝 𝑤} =50, while the time step size is based on the Courant–

Friedrichs–Lewy condition.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

-0.05 0 0.05

ux Analytical u

x FE u

y Analytical u y FE

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

-0.05 0 0.05

ux Analytical u

x FE u

y Analytical u y FE

Figure 5.4: 𝑢_𝑥and𝑢_𝑦computed by analytical solution and by FE approach with incorporated subroutine: (a) at point𝑂(0,0); and (b) at point𝐶(125,0).

Fig.5.4 shows the displacements at two points𝑂 and𝐶, computed by analytical solution via Eqs. (5.1), (5.2), and (5.5), and by FE approach with incorporated subroutine. The results by these two approaches agree well with each other. Meanwhile, Fig.5.5illustrates the displacement field contours of Rayleigh surface wave propagation at time 𝑡 = 7.25 second. Observably, for both𝑢_𝑥and𝑢_𝑦, the wave envelopes travel from left to right without

Figure 5.5: 𝑢_𝑥 and𝑢_𝑦 displacement fields at𝑡 =7.25 s.

dispersion, which is expected for fundamental mode of Rayleigh wave in homogeneous elastic half-space soil medium.

5.2.2 Model considering soil-pipe interaction with free-field input The reduced-order model for SPI analysis is shown in Fig.5.6, in which the pipe is modeled as beam elements1 and the surrounding soil is replaced by a set of springs and dashpots formulated to represent its macroscopic reaction to differential deformations between soil and pipe.

The spring stiffness and dashpot coefficient per unit length along x-axis, 𝑘_𝑥 and 𝑐_𝑥, and along y-axis,𝑘_𝑦 and𝑐_𝑦, are computed as

𝑘_j =< 𝐾_jj

, (5.6)

𝑐_j == 𝐾_jj

/𝜔 , (5.7)

1In the context of this chapter, a beam element refers to a beam-column element that resists both axial force and bending moment. Each node of the beam has one rotational and two translational degrees of freedom.

u

_g^y

u

_g^x

y

x c

_y

k

_y

k

_x

c

_x

Figure 5.6: Schematic of pipe analysis.

where j = x or y, < and =represent the real and imaginary parts. The SIFs along axial and vertical directions, 𝐾_xx and 𝐾_yy, were computed previously in Chapters 3and 4as a function of excitation frequency𝜔, shear modulus and Poisson’s ratio of soil domain, burial depth and radius of the buried pipe.

The free-field ground motions𝑢^𝑥

𝑔 and𝑢

𝑦

𝑔, obtained in the same way as in Subsection5.2.1, are applied at the ends of springs and dashpots as seismic excitation. The analysis was performed using OPENSEES framework.

5.2.3 Models based on substructure and finite element methods