E. The Reign of Hezekiah
27. A Cantata of Salvation (24-27)
9(1963)118-26; R. J. Coggins, “The Problem of Isaiah 24-27,”
ET 90(1979)328-33; J. Day, “A Case of Inner Scriptural Interpretation: The Dependence of Isaiah xxvi. 13-xxvii. 11 on Hosea xiii 4-xiv. 10 (Eng. 9) and Its Relevance to Some Theories of the Redaction of the ‘Isaiah Apocalypse,“’ JTS 31(1980)309-19; J. A. Emerton, “A Textual Problem in Isaiah 25:2,” ZAW 89(1977)64-73; Emerton, “Notes on Two Verses in Isaiah (26:16 and 66:17),” BZAW 150(1980)12-25; G. Fohrer,
“Der Aufbau der Apokalypse des Jesajabuches (Is. 24-27),”
CBQ 25(1963)34-45 = BZAW 99(1967)170-81; C. H. Gordon,
“Leviathan, Symbol of Evil,” Biblical Motifs (ed. A. Altmann;
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966)1-9; M. L.
Henry, Glaubenskrise und Glaubensbezuiihrung in den Dictungen der Jesujaapokalypse (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag, 1967);
W. H. Irvin, “Syntax and Style in Isaiah 26,” CBQ 41(1979) 240-61; D. G. Johnson, Devastation and Restoration: A Compositional Study of Isaiah 24-27 (dissertation, Princeton Theological Seminary, 1985); M. J. Lagrange, “L’apocalypse d’Isaie (24-27),” RB 3(1894)200-231; L. D. Levine, “Senna- cherib’s Southern Front: 704-689,” JCS 34(1982)28-58; E.
Liebmann, “Der Text zu Jesaia 24-27,” ZAW 22(1902)285-304;
23(1903)209-86; J. Lindblom, Die Jesaju-Apokalypse: Jes. 24-27 (Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1938); P. Lohmann, “Die selbstandi- genlyrischen Ab h ttSC n i e in Jes 2427,” ZAW 37(1917/18)1-58;
W. R. Millar, Isaiah 24-27 and the Origin of Apocalyptic (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1976); E. S. Mulder, Die teologie vun die Jesaja-apokalipse (GroningenDjarkarta: J. B. Wolters, 1954); B. Oded, Muss Deportations and Deportees in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1979); B. Otzen, “Traditions and Structures of Isaiah XXIV-XXVII,” VT 24(1974)196-206; H. Ringgren, “Some Observations on Style and Structure in the Isaiah Apoca- lypse,” ASTI 9(1973)107-15; W. Rudolph, Jesaja 2 4 - 2 7 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag, 1933); J. M. Sasson, “The Worship of the Golden Calf,” Orient and Occident (Festschrift C. H,. Gordon; ed. H. A. Hoffner, Jr.; Kevelaer/Neukirchen- Vluyn: Butzon & BerckerNeukirchener Verlag, 1973)151-59;
H. Tadmor, “The Campaigns of Sargon II of Assur: A
Isaiah’s Preaching and the lsaianic Narratives
revolt (see chap. 4, sect. 24). The changes made in Assyrian policy with regard to Judah would have included increased surveillance in the state and the construction of quarters for Assyrian forces in Jerusalem. Only limited, if any, direct Assyrian supervision over Judah would already have existed prior to the revolt (see 33:18-19; see below, chap. 4, sect. 33), but a new state of affairs was put into place following Judah’s participation in the rebellion. The nature of this new policy was probably comparable to what Sargon reports with regard to Ashdod: “I reorganized (the administration of) these cities [Ashdod, Gath, and Ashdod-by-the-Sea] (and) settled therein people from the [regions] of the East which I had conquered personally. I installed an officer of mine over them and declared them Assyrian citizens and they pulled (as such) the straps (of my yoke)” (ANET 286; see p. 269).
Isaiah 24-27 was probably composed by the prophet for use on some festive occasion that celebrated Judah’s assertion of freedom from Assyrian domination and the destruction of the Assyrian citadel in Jerusalem. (As Jerusalem had earlier celebrated its independence from Israel; see above, chap. 4, sect. 11.). Such a festive occasion may have been either some specially called celebration or, more likely, one of the autumn new year festivals following the outbreak of revolt in 705. Therefore, either 705 or 704 appears a likely date.
Internal evidence in chapters 24-27 indicates that some of the events had already taken place or were in progress or were planned in conjunction with the revolt. (1) As we noted in the preceding paragraphs, the Assyrian citadel in Jerusalem had been destroyed. (2) Revolt seems widespread throughout the Assyrian empire. This is indicated by the references to the far-flung celebrations in 24:14-16. (3) The move to expand the territory held by Hezekiah seems already to be underway (see 26:15). All along, Isaiah had held out hope for an expanded state under Davidic governance. In 735 he had offered such expectations to Ahaz (see 7:17; 9:7;
II:i3-14). Following the western campaign of Sargon, he had expressed these nationalistic interests in terms of a strong Israel, comprising the major power between Egypt and AssYria (19:24-25). In the days to come, he predicted in 709, TYre would be subordinate to Jerusalem (23:17-18). The Isaiah was a strong supporter of this revolt, seeing it as part
of a great action of God in history. He had earlier opposed Judean revolts against Assyria, but that opposition was based on the inopportuneness of those earlier occasions.
Isaiah had proclaimed that the Assyrians would be destroyed (10:16-27; 14:24-27; 33:1), but he had warned against impatience (5:19; 28:16), arguing that the Assyrians must first carry out their task as an instrument of Yahweh (10:5-6; 29).
But in 705, Isaiah saw the inauguration of “plans formed long ago, plans faithful and sure” (25:l).
In chapters 24-27, constant reference is made to the destruction of a city or a fortified area or quarter of a city. The following descriptions of this “place” that had been destroyed appear: “city of chaos” (qiryuth tohu; 24:lO); “city”
(‘ir), “fortified city” (qiryuth besuruh), “palace of strangers”
(‘armon zarim) in 25:2; “city of terrifying nations” (qiryuth goyim ‘arisim; 25:3); “lofty city” (qiryuth nisgubah; 26:5); and
“fortified city” (‘Y besuruh; 27:lO). What is being referred to in these descriptions is not a specific city but a particular part of a city, namely, the fortified Assyrian citadel in Jerusalem garrisoned with troops, probably from various countries, charged with the military supervision of Jerusalem and Judah. Such a citadel, comparable to the Seleucid stronghold in Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabean wars (see I Mace.
1:33-35; 6:18-27; 11:20-23; 13:49-52), was located in some elevated portion of the town. The terms ‘ir and qiryuth are used elsewhere in Hebrew to denote not just walled towns but walled enclosures or quarters in a town. Isaiah 17:2, which speaks of the “cities” or “fortified quarters” in the Moabite town of Aroer, may be an example. The “city of David” in Jerusalem was the enclosed palace complex, rather than the entire city of Jerusalem (see II Sam. 6:16; I Kings 2:lO;
8:l; and elsewhere).
The Assyrian citadel was probably constructed in Jerusa- lem following Judah’s participation and defeat in the Ashdod-led revolt of 712/11. Isaiah’s sharp critique of the Judean leaders at the time of that revolt, especially Shebna and Eliakim (see 22:15-25 and above, chap. 4, sect. 25), was very harsh. His statement that “he [Sargon] has taken away the covering of Judah” (22:Ba) meant that Judah had lost its favored status as a consequence of its participation in the
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nationalistic hopes of a state extending from the Euphrates to the Brook of Egypt are reaffirmed as the conclusion to chapter 27 (see w. 12-13). Hezekiah shared these nationalistic expectations. Hezekiah had extended his territory in the southwest shortly after Sargon’s movement into the area (see I Chron. 4:39-43 and, above, chap. 4, sect. 21). Second Kings 18:8 notes Hezekiah’s war against the Philistines, which may have been carried out in conjunction with or prior to the 705 revolt. Hezekiah certainly had his sights on taking the north (see above, chap. 1, sect. 3E). It is entirely possible that Hezekiah’s forces moved into the old northern territory of Israel and possibly even into Transjordan once the revolt was underway. (4) The religious reforms of Hezekiah, including the closing of non-Jerusalemite shrines, is alluded to in 27:9, but it is uncertain whether the reforms were past or in progress (see II Kings 18:4a). It is possible, although admittedly highly speculative, that 27:l alludes to the destruction of the Nehustan, the bronze serpent in the temple (see II Kings 18:4b), since Leviathan is referred to as nahash. (5) The death of Sargon may be alluded to in 26:14.
Scholars have long noted the liturgical character of Isaiah 24-27. These liturgical features, which we will note in more detail below, lend support to the view that Isaiah 2427 was composed for use in a festival celebration. At this point, we must comment on the nature of festival celebrations but can do so only briefly. Two biblical texts, Exodus 32:1-20 and II Samuel 6, give some indications of the activities associated with major festivals.
The first of these texts is the story of the making of the golden calf in the wilderness. Here we are concerned, however, only with noting some of the features of the celebration. Among the ritual elements mentioned are the offering of burnt offerings, the presentation of sacrifices of well-being (“peace offerings” in the RSV), eating and drinking, game playing or sporting (“to play” in RSV) in 32:6, antiphonal singing (probably the meaning of the pie1 of bnah), and dancing in 32:17-19.
Second Samuel 6 describes David’s bringing of the ark to Jerusalem. In the narrative, the following ritual actions are noted: making merry with various musical instruments (v. 5), rejoicing (v. 12), sacrifices (v. 13), dancing (or whirling,
Isaiah’s Preaching and the lsaianic Narratives
v. 14), shouting, blowing of the ram’s horn (v. 15), leaping and dancing (or whirling, v. 16), further sacrifices (v. 17), blessings (v. 18), and the distribution of gifts (v. 19).
All of this suggests that festival celebrations incorporated a broad and diverse number of activities. This diversity of actions in cultic celebrations was probably matched by a similar diversity in the oral presentations. Such a diversity of forms and genres is contained in Isaiah 2427. It is interesting to note in this regard what I Maccabees 13:51-52~ tells us about the events associated with the Maccabean capture of the Seleucid citadel in Jerusalem in 141:
On the twenty-third day of the second month, in the one hundred and seventy-first year, the Jews entered it with praise and palm branches, and with harps and cymbals and stringed instruments, and with hymns and songs, because a great enemy had been crushed and removed from Israel. And Simon decreed that every year they should celebrate this day with rejoicing. (RSV) Isaiah had himself earlier spoken of the great celebration to come when Assyrian power was broken (30:29-33).
The
24273 following is an outline of the contents of chapters (I)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 18:
(9) (IO) (11)
Yahweh lays waste the present orders of the world (24:1-13)
Shouting from the ends of the earth (24:14-16) Proclamation of judgment (24:17-23)
A psalm of thanksgiving (25:1-5)
Affirmation of the good time coming (25:6-12) A song of triumph (26:1-6)
A prayer of trust (26:7-19)
An oracle of assurance (26:20-27:l) A new song of the vineyard (272-6) The time of guilt is past (227-11) The Great Israel to come (27:12-13)
Isaiah 24:1-13
Isaiah’s proclamation that Yahweh is now moving to refashion and reorder the world opens with what appears as
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almost a thesis sentence: “Behold, Yahweh is demolishing the earth and laying it waste; he will twist its surface and scatter its inhabitants” (24:l). This depiction by the prophet envisions Yahweh’s present action as if God were leveling or tearing down earth’s orders and structures in order to redo creation. Thus there are numerous analogies and allusions in this material to the traditions and views now embodied in Genesis l-11.
In verses 2-13, Isaiah describes the work of Yahweh’s demolition of the present structures of life and the consequences of this action. The normal relationships and distinctions in society-priest-people, slave-master, maid- mistress, buyer-seller, lender-borrower, creditor-debtor- will no longer hold (v. 2). The world will lose its normal structures because God has decreed that this should happen and has spoken his word to bring it about (v. 3).
Verses 4-13 spell out in more detail what has been declared in verses 1 and 3 and partially illustrated in verse 3. Verse 4a speaks of the earth as already undergoing change. Here and throughout much of chapters 24-27, the prophet engages in wordplay, employing terms that sound alike. If this material was recited or sung responsively or antiphonally, such wordplay may have been used as a device to involve the participants more fully in the performance and to give a rhythmic quality to the recitation.
Verse 4b introduces a new element in the portrayal: “The exalted of the people of the world languish.” For an audience in Isaiah’s time, this could only denote the Assyrians. In fact, the destruction of Assyrian power was understood as the dominant feature in Yahweh’s reordering of the world.
In verse 5, the prophet offers a theological rationale for Yahweh’s action. The earth has been polluted by its inhabitants (or rulers). The source of this pollution is the people’s trangressions. The idea that the land and the earth could be polluted by human sin, and especially violence and the shedding of blood, is widespread in the scriptures (see Lev. 18:24-30; Num. 35:33; Deut. 21:1-9). The laws and the statutes and the eternal covenant that people have violated would here refer to the laws of creation or the universal principles assumed to be binding on all people. In the biblical tradition, these would refer to the Noachic regulations (see
Isaiah’s Preaching and the lsaianic Narratives
Con. 9:16; where the expression “everlasting covenant”
occurs).
The consequence of human transgression is described in verse 6a as a curse that devours the earth. This is simply an
~personal, equivalent way of saying God’s anger is working itself out upon the human family. Human sin, in other words, is seen as setting into operation a process that, if unrectified, produces ill consequences. The earth’s inhabi- tants must pay the penalty for their behavior. They who sow must also reap. Isaiah argues that harvest time has come.
The destruction of humans and the reduction of population through warfare are seen in verse 6b as some of the consequences of the curse’s operation, as part of the inevitable result of transgressing the moral order.
Manifestations of the operation of the curse or of Gods demolition of the present orders are further expounded in the verses that follow. The images and examples that Isaiah uses to illustrate his case are interesting and diverse. Three primary examples are used: wine and strong drink, merriment and mirth, and the destruction of the citadel.
Wine (and strong drink), one of the primordial blessings gracing human life (see Gen. 5:29; 9:20-21), is personified as mourning and languishing; it is no longer consumed or is lacking (w. 7u, 9, 11~). Merriment and good times have disappeared, and celebration is at a low ebb (vv. 7b, 8, lib):
“All joy reached its eventide.” The city of chaos has been broken down, its houses barred, and the gate to the citadel demolished (w. 10,12). The citadel is described, in verse 10, as “the city of chaos” or “tohu-town.” Whether Isaiah coined this nickname for the Assyrian fortress or whether it was so named by the Jerusalem population is unknown. Nonethe- less, its name fits the imagery being employed by Isaiah, recalling as it does the imagery reflected in Genesis 1:2, in which the earth is tohu before God’s creation. The destruction of the citadel is thus viewed by Isaiah as part of the reversion to disorder and chaos out of which new order can arise.
The conclusion to this section affirms that the divine transformation of the present orders will occur everywhere.
God's action will shake the nations and the whole of the
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world like the beating of olive trees when they are gleaned at the end of the harvest season (v. 13).
Isaiah’s Preaching and the lsaianic Narratives
supporters. (Earlier, Isaiah had used the term razah to describe what would happen to Ephraim; see 17:4). (e) The interpretation of the last part of verse 16 is problematic but plays on terminology used earlier by the prophet (see 33:l). It could be taken as a chanting imitation of a battle cry and could be understood as: “The deceitful ones [the Assyrians and their allies], they [the rebels] have deceived.” Or it could be understood, like the preceding line, as the hypothesized cry of the Assyrians: “The deceiving one [the rebels] have deceived; with the deceit of deceivers, they [the rebels] have deceived.” (f) The verb in verse 17b, which we have revocalized and read as “one says,” actually is “I say.” It is possible that “I say” is correct and that the prophet made such a declaration in leading the celebrative chant.
Isaiah 24:14-16
In verses 14-16, the prophet celebrates the widespread outbreak of revolt by referring to the shouts to be heard from east to west. The material in these verses, and especially in verse 16, has the character of a chant, and we should probably think of its being recited antiphonally.
14. They lift up their voices, they sing for joy,
over the majesty of Yahweh!
They shout from the sea (the west);
15. therefore in the lands of daybreak (the east), they glorify Yahweh!
On the coastlands of the sea,
“The name of Yahweh, the God of Israel!”
16. From the end of the earth, the sound of praise we hear,
“Glory to the Righteous One!”
And, one says,
“wasted am I, wasted am I, woe am I.”
“The deceitful ones, they have deceived,
and the deceit of the deceitful ones, they have deceived!”
Several points should be made about the interpretation of this text. (a) The shouting that is depicted as coming from east and west refers to the outbreak of rebellion that ranged from Media and Babylon in the east to the shores of Cilicia in the west and probably to Cyprus in the Mediterranean. (b) Since the prophet attributes all activity to the work of Yahweh, it is Yahweh whom he has the revolting peoples praise and honor. (c) The chanting quality of verse 16b can be seen in its alliterative character:
razi-li razi-li ‘oy li bogedim bagadu ubeged bogedim bagadu (d) The first quotation, “Wasted am I, wasted am I, woe am I,” is to be taken as the shout mocking those being overwhelmed in the rebellion, that is, the Assyrians and their
Isaiah 24:17-23
Verses 17-23 logically carry on the thought of the preceding sections. Verses l-13 have described Yahweh’s action to produce disorder and disarray in the orders of the world.
Verses 14-16 depict the outbreak of revolt throughout the empire. Such rebellion was part of the ordained plan of Yahweh, part of the creation of chaos out of which a new world situation would arise. Verses 17-23 declare that there is no escape from the actions of Yahweh, which will extend even into the heavenly realm. In a world turned upside down, one thing remains certain: “Yahweh reigns as king on Mt. Zion and in Jerusalem and before its elders he is honored.”
Verses 17-18a, like verse 17, is an elaborate play on words.
The terms for terror (pahad), pit or trench (puhat), and snare or trap (pub) were used because of their similar sounds and because the prophet could use the three to illustrate the inescapability of Yahweh’s actions. After a rather straight- forward statement in verse 18b, the material returns to alliterative wordplay in 19-20~. The NJPSV preserves something of the repetitive quality of the language:
The earth is breaking, breaking;
The earth is crumbling, crumbling;
The earth is tottering, tottering;
The earth is swaying like a drunkard;
It is rocking to and fro like a hut.
Isaiah Isaiah’s Preaching and the lsaianic Narratives
response to the whole of chapter 24 and especially 24:23b.
The close connection with the preceding material is indicated by the fact that the psalm picks up on the theme of the destroyed citadel, a theme that helps tie together all of 2427 (see 24:10, 12; 25:2, 5; 26:5-6; 27:10-11).
The psalm opens with a statement of intention, namely, to exalt Yahweh and praise his name (v. la). The first reason given for offering praise is that God “has carried out a marvelous thing, [namely], plans made long ago, [plans]
certain and sure” (v. lb). That Yahweh had laid plans for Israel/Judah/Jerusalem is a frequent theme in Isaiah’s preaching. How clearly Isaiah understood and proclaimed these purposes or plans of God remains uncertain. He had chided his contemporaries, as early as the reign of Uzziah, for wanting a hasty revelation of God’s purpose (see 5:18-19). As early as 735, he had related the Assyrians to the work and purpose of Yahweh (see 10:5-19) and made clear that these plans included not only using the Assyrians to punish his own people, but also the eventual destruction of the Assyrians. This position was reiterated in 728/7 when the prophet proclaimed that the Assyrian would be destroyed in Yahweh’s land (see 14:24-27). In chapter 28 the prophet warned that the time had not come (in 727/6) for revolt and apparently gave Hezekiah the nickname, “the one who stands firm (or is faithful) will not be in haste” (2831621). In 28:21, Isaiah spoke of the strangeness of Yahweh’s work, namely, the use of Assyria to punish his own people. In 31:8-9 and 33:17-19, Isaiah spoke of the time coming, when the land would be free from Assyrian domination.
All of these texts come from the time prior to the Assyrian capture of Samaria in 722. Therefore, Isaiah very early on had proclaimed the eventual overthrow of Assyria. Such procla- mation would clearly have stimulated the formation of plans for revolt and the coordination of Judah’s plans with those of other countries. Quite early in his reign, Hezekiah must have become party to such plans for revolt, and his economical, political, and religious programs were geared to this end and to the conquest of the whole of the area from the Brook of Egypt to the Euphrates River. At the time of the 728/7 revolt (see Isa. 17) and again in the revolt of 727 and following (see Isa. 28-33), Isaiah opposed rebellion against Assyria, no Such rhythmic language would lend itself to chanting, and
the recitation of the text may have been accompanied by dancing and dramatic enactment.
The universality of Yahweh’s actions is demonstrated by the prophet when he declares that the windows of heaven are opened and the foundations of the earth tremble (v. 18b;
see Gen. 7:ll; 8:2). As at the time of the flood, the earth is undergoing radical change.
Part of the earth’s problem is its evil: “Its (the worlds) transgression lies heavy upon it and it [the old world order]
will collapse [under the weight of its transgression] and will not rise up again” (v. 20b). This text parallels verses 5-6, in which the world is described as polluted from the human violation of divine order.
In verses 21-23, the prophet proclaims that Yahweh’s day of judgment is coming. Both heavenly powers-“the host of heaven, in heaven”-and human rulers-“the kings of the earth, on earth”-will be punished. The host of heaven is to be identified with the angelic beings or deities associated with the various nations (see Deut. 32:B). The kings on earth are the earthly parallels to the heavenly powers. The powers, presumably heavenly and earthly, are to be imprisoned together and after some time will undergo punishment (v.
22). In metaphorical and mythological terms, Isaiah has here proclaimed that part of Yahweh’s action against the present orders will be the binding and eventual punishment of evil powers. The universality of the work of Yahweh is said to involve even the moon and the sun (see Amos 8:9).
This depiction of universal turmoil, rebellion, and world disorder, which runs throughout chapter 24, is brought to a conclusion in verse 23b with an affirmation that Yahweh, the God who lays waste the world (v. 1), reigns as king in Zion/Jerusalem and is there held in honor.
Isaiah 25:1-S
Chapter 25 opens with a thanksgiving psalm formulated in the first person, that is, as an individual psalm. This psalm fits nicely into its context. The preceding chapter ended on a note of confidence and confession, namely that Yahweh reigns in Zion. The psalm in verses l-5 can thus be seen as a