2.3. Online assessment
2.3.1. Online Assessment Principles
Since using the online system in teaching and learning has been done for many years, assessing students has also changed. Gikandi et al. (2011) believed that the formative assessment pattern from William and Leahy (2015), regarding an online environment could be expanded to the teaching and learning instructions that invite learning opportunities. It is supported by Kong (2019). He found that the online learning system could change the learning process, teaching mode, and evaluation. Online learning assessment could involve students directly in a new and relevant environment (Prastikawati et al., 2020).
In other words, an online assessment system requires students to be independent and active. Koc et al. (2015) suggested that teachers prepare the beginning of the assessment with the “early detection” technique. In line with Marjorie (2011), teachers first should identify their students' state of digital identity, whether the students are immigrants or native digital users.
Moreover, Marjorie (2011) divided the online learner based on their digital fluency, where the classification would benefit teachers in knowing their students' digital state and what to do with them. It tests the students’ technology skills, creating community belongings in online learning to create independent students
through the online formative assessment. Knowing the students' state of digital fluency, the teacher would be more accessible in designing the online course, which could affect the quality of the learning system quality (Rahmawati et al., 2021). Kristiyanti (2021) stated that online assessment transforms students into a new environment from face-to-face to online and lets them become the center of learning. Palloff and Pratt (2009) stated that the assessment techniques for the face-to-face classroom have the same principle as the online classroom. However, the principal could change due to some considerations of students in online learning.
Therefore, they suggested some principles which can guide students’ assessment in the online course. Palloff and Pratt (2009) classified some principles of the online assessment. These are:
2.3.1.1.Plan a student-centered assessment that corresponds to the student-centered activities and assignments
This principle encourages teachers to plan student center assessments in line with their activities and assignment by adding the reflection process in an online course because it can be a basic learner-centered assessment (Koc et al., 2015; Thorman &
Zimmerman, 2012). Besides, Morgan and O’ Reilly (2006) stated that the students learning activities should be related to explicit learning objectives, aims, criteria, standards, and pedagogical
approaches. (Chanpet et al., 2020) stated that student-centered learning activities are the most suitable for the online environment.
Additionally, there are two formats in it.
The synchronous format is where students and teachers are connected at the same time, while asynchronous is where students let students learn at a different time with the other students and teacher. Asynchronous is the most suggested format since the students need a longer time to build the meaning of the subject (Thorman & Zimmerman, 2012).
Moreover, the students would develop their ideas concretely when working in pairs or groups. There are two basic strategies in the face to face and online, that support student-based assessment.
There are project-based learning (Chanpet et al., 2020) and authentic learning (Gikandi et al., 2011). It is where the students can authentically do the task when the teacher facilitate them with various form of task that focuses on the student's experiences.
2.3.1.2.Design and include grading rubrics
This principle suggests that teachers design the assessment and involve the grading rubric. The rubric of students’ discussion, projects, and collaboration could help students define the high- quality learning assignment and its assessment expectation
(Krishnan, 2019). It also provides the students’ understanding of the range and span of possible outcomes. Therefore, teachers could inform the learning criteria supporting learning intention with specific regulations (William & Leahy, 2015). Teachers could post the rubrics in the online classroom, and students could edit them by highlighting their understanding of their possible performance and outcome of the learning. Reviewing Gikandi et al. (2011), they found that it is essential to share the rubrics of the assessment and the example of work to keep the openness of the student's achievement and support the feedback standards.
Perwitasari et al. (2021) discovered that teachers in online learning assessments must believe in their students' honesty and independence. In other words, cheating still becomes the main issue in the online learning environment (Keresztury & Cser, 2013).
Benson (2015) provided some suggestions to minimize cheating. First, arrange the assessment that is connected to other materials. Besides, make the topic different or based on the individualism of the students' context or experience to invite their critical thinking. It is supported by Husna (2020), who discovered that critical thinking in assessment design could decrease cheating
chances. Use self-directed assessment techniques like learning contracts. Authenticate students’ work by using peer review or feedback. Furthermore, teachers should update and adapt assessment tasks regularly. Above all, although cheating and plagiarism are more complex in the online environment, they could be minimized by designing the assessment.
2.3.1.3.Include collaborative assessment
This principle explains the importance of including the collaborative assessment that automatically requires students to collaborate. Collaboration among students helps make students involved in a deeper understanding of the material (Thorman &
Zimmerman, 2012). Therefore, teachers should establish a guideline for collaboration and collaborative assessment.
Furthermore, Palloff and Pratt (2009) asserted that the key to collaborative activity is a student’s self and peer assessment of their contribution during the collaboration. Therefore, it is essential to guide self-assessment. The following question is the fundamental question to guide the students in self-assessment.
“How well did I participate in my group?
Did I make a significant contribution?
Did I share my opinion of the workload?
How comfortable do I feel with the group process?
Did I provide substantive feedback to other group members?
How do I feel about the collaborative work produced by my group?
How did the collaborative process contribute to my learning goals and this course objective?
Table 2 Basic Questions to Do Self-assessment (William & Leahy, 2015)
After doing the self-assessment, students can grade their friends and themselves. At the same time, teachers conduct their assessments. Finally, the teachers assign two grades to the assignment: one is a group grade for the group's final work, and the other is an individual grade for each group member. Furthermore, the peer review and assessment activity could be implemented in an asynchronous environment (Fan &
Woodrich, 2017). Teachers could utilize the website and software tools to do peer reviews. If it is not possible, the teacher must provide clear guidelines for peer review.
Additionally, it will be good if the teacher provides anonymous work to model the peer-review guideline as an example (William & Leahy, 2015).
2.3.1.4.Encourage students to develop good feedback skills and give instant feedback on performance and tasks
Teachers can give students feedback by giving them guidelines and models (Rahim, 2020). Firstly, the teacher could ask students to make peer feedback activities a habit. Second, teachers can exemplify this activity by giving supportive, neutral, and professional feedback. The students were introduced to a new skill through modeling, which they could later adapt to other assessment activities in other courses (William & Leahy, 2015).
Besides, Morgan and O’reilly (2009) claimed that teachers should balance their roles in online learning. In other words, the teacher's role automatically becomes the students’ learning partner in embedding the online formative assessment. While at the summative test, the teacher becomes the students’ assessor at the end of the lesson. Thorman and Zimmerman (2012) stated that the teacher should be a feedback model to develop students' feedback provision in the online environment.
2.3.1.5. Use effective assessment techniques.
This principle emphasizes the appropriateness between the assessment technique and the learning objectives or intention. Using the test is not always the one way to assess (Xie & Lei, 2019). Therefore, teachers should know many
effective assessment techniques for online students. Despite many debates about the most effective technique, it would be based on the learning objectives.
Consequently, teachers should consider self-reflection, peer assessments, and designed rubrics (Morgan & O’ Reilly, 2009). This principle should involve the teachers’ part of assessment literacy because, despite many techniques in assessing their students, assessment-literate teachers here should be able to justify and adjust which technique was effective. The literacy of assessment can make them easier to understand the effectiveness of many assessment techniques.
2.3.1.6.Designing effective assessments for the online environment This principle suggests that teachers design a clear, easy-to- understand assessment, especially in an online environment.
Palloff and Pratt (2009) provided some effective techniques for designing assessments in an online environment. There are:
a. It is regular, ongoing communication with and feedback to students as a technique of embedding assessment within the class.
Gikandi et al. (2011) supported this technique by asserting the importance of immediate feedback to the students, especially
in an asynchronous environment. As well as Wolsey (2008) also found that late or delayed feedback tends to be ignored by the students because it would be unrelated anymore to them. Furthermore, the feedback should be clear to provide students with provisions that can be repeated anytime.
b. It uses group work, collaboration, and a high level of interaction through discussion as a dynamic interaction.
It is where the teachers collaborate with the student to pursue the same goal. Therefore, Gikandi et (2011) found that the first interaction and collaboration begin with the assessment rubrics sharing. Besides, the dynamic social relation through the group collaborations enhanced the satisfaction and motivation that brought the students to the level of active engagement. Additionally, the provision of peer and self-feedback would potentially create high interaction among students that instead surpass the offline environment.
c. The modification of traditional assessment tools is arranged based on the online environment.
Gikandi et al. (2011) also maintain that online assessment design is distinguished because the formative
assessment requires thorough consideration from the beginning/outset to facilitate and integrate it. It is supported by Xie and Lei (2019), who stated that formative assessment in the online environment is comprehensively prepared since it can be done in the beginning, middle and last part of the teaching process.
d. Involve other alternative assessments such as performance- based assessments, authentic assessments, and e-portfolios.
The formative assessment in an online environment should vary so that the students can deal with various tasks based on their ability to solve them. It could make them authentically learn. What makes the assessment authentic for the students is the tasks related to the students’ world (Gikandi et al., 2011). As well as Thorman and Zimmerman (2012) defined authentic assessment as where teachers assess students in a real-world environment. Performance-based is where the teachers see the students' ability through their practice. The students' work on demonstrating their progress is also a form of e-portfolio assessment.
The assessment techniques mentioned above are connected with tests. In this case, teachers should also
anticipate the imbalance of students learning criteria and their electronic use, possibly inviting the cheating issue (Peterson, 2019). Therefore, teachers can create tests based on students' memory and experiences. In short, teachers can consider that online test is the holistic and authentic test that is also opened book free test.
2.3.1.7.Ask for and incorporate students’ input
It is great to get students' feedback on how assessments should be done and then incorporate it into the assessment design. By involving learners in the development of the assessment process, a learning cycle is created that supports their growth as learners (Syafrizal & Pahamzah, 2020). Teachers should include students in the assessment design process when the following results are desired: the sense of community development, self-directed learning, self-efficacy, and exploration are encouraged, and problem-solving skills increase (William & Leahy, 2015). Above all, students’ participation in the assessment process is based on the belief that students may be experts in their learning and that promoting self-direction is essential.