P oetry
I
T WAS NOT UNTIL THE REVISED STANDARD VERSION OF 1952 THAT THE ENGLISH READER was made aware of the true place of Hebrew poetry in the sacred canon, Previous versions had put only the Psalms into poetic format, but the Revised Standard did so with all biblical poetry. There are many songs in narrative books (Gen 49; Ex lS;l- 18; Deut 32; 33; Judg 5; 1 Sam 2:1-10; 2 Sam 1:19-27; 1 Kings 12:16; 2 Kings 19:21-34) and poetry comprises entire prophetic books (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Na- hum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah) as well as extensive portions of others (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Jonah, Zechariah). Much more of the Old Testament is poetry than just the more widely known books like Psalms, Proverbs, Lamentations, Song of Songs or Job. Poetry is therefore a device that cuts across other genres, being a major rhetorical technique in wisdom and prophetic literature.The meaning and theology of the Psalms are very disputed today. The tendency for much of this century has been to place each psalm within the larger Sitz im Leben (historical situation) of ancient Israel’s cultic life (such as Albright, Freedman). This diachronic approach uses the poetic works to reconstruct the patterns and thinking of Israel’s developing worship. Others, however, following the new literary criticism (see appendix one), consider each psalm a separate unit and seek only its individual artistic world (Alonso-Schokel 1960). However, the majority of scholars refuse to separate the corporate (the psalm as part of Israel’s cultic worship) and the individual (the psalm as the product of a particular author) aspects. They are interdependent and should be studied together (see Gerstenberger 1985:424-25 and Brueggemann 1988:ix-x). In fact, Gerstenberger distinguished several stages from the individual to the family or tribe to national religious identity centering upon the temple (1988:33-34). There are individual as well as corporate psalms, and each plays a somewhat different role in the religious formation of Israel’s hymnody.
It is crucial to understand how Hebrew poetry functions. It has rightly been pointed out that no portion of Scripture is more widely read than the psalms. In pocket versions of the New Testament the psalms are often appended, and in most worship services they are still sung or chanted regularly. The extent to which the psalter is quoted in the New Testament shows its importance in the life of the early church. Yet the psalms are not
easily understood. The parallelism and metrical patterns are often difficult to unlock, and the unwary reader can read far more into the parallel statements than the context actually warrants. Moreover, many (like lament or imprecatory psalms) seem to be inapplicable at first glance. In addition, scholars and pastors often overexegete the imagery or met- aphors in Hebrew poetry and give it more theological weight than they should. It is necessary to understand something of the form and function of Semitic poetic patterns in order to make sense of them.
The Form of Hebrew Poetry
1. Metrical Patterns. Poetry can be identified both by metrics or rhythm and by paral- lelism of grammar and language. The former is useful primarily to specialists and does little to aid preachers, so I will not spend undue time on it. Yet a basic knowledge of metrics is important in order to enable the reader to gain some feel for Hebrew poetry.
No one has yet discovered a formula for unlocking the secret of Semitic rhythm. As Freedman notes, every poem seems to bear different marks (1977:10-12). Scholars are divided as to whether to grade the structures via stress or syllable counts. Both depend upon a knowledge of Hebrew and of phonet.ics. Stressed units refer to the oral side of poetry and divide a line on the basis of the syllables the Hebrew reader stressed as he recited a verse. For instance, Psalm 103:lO divides along the following stresses:
Not on the basis of our sins/ does he deal/ with us,
Nor on the basis of our iniquities/ does he make payment/ against us.
Syllables are the basic units of speech, and many like Freedman believe they provide a more accurate and identifiable basis for structuring a poem. For instance, Psalm 113 has fourteen-syllable lines divided 7:7 and on occ:asion 8:6.
Yet not all poems are so easy to demarcate on the basis’ of either plan. There is simply too much variation and each poem in Script.ure must be studied on its own merits. The most we can say is that rhythm is one of the major identifying marks of Hebrew poetry.
Using stress lines, scholars have divided psalms into 2:2,3:2,2:3 and many other patterns.
Dividing by syllables has produced any number of patterns, with ten- or twelve- or fourteen-syllable lines. Moreover, strophes or verses are made up of two (as Ps 103:lO above) to five lines of parallel ideas. Within these there can be a myriad of forms, as the metric pattern and the parallelism are intertwined. In fact, many scholars believe that the two systems may represent stages in the development of Hebrew poetry, While this remains speculative and unverifiable, the fact: remains that the poet’s choice of language depended to an extent upon metrical considerations. At the same time, sound (including not only metrics but oral reading, alliteration, onomatopoeia and such like) was often determinative in the choice and clustering of words in the strophes of the poem (Ger- stenberger 1985:413-16).
In short, the interpreter dare not assign more meaning to individual terms than the whole psalm will allow. Word studies are not as determinative in the Psalms as they are in the New Testament Epistles, and meaning is derived more by the whole than by the parts. For all these reasons we must focus our attention more on parallelism than on
metrics. *
176 The Hsrmeneuticrl Spirrl
2. Parallelism. In 1750 Bishop Robert Lowth developed the position generally advocated in modern times, of three basic types of parallelism: synonymous, synthetic and antithet- ical. Most still follow this today (such as Gerstenberger, Murphy, Gray). However, a growing number of scholars (such as Kugel, Alter, Longman) are challenging this theory, arguing that it virtually reduces poetry to prose by “flattening out the poetic line”(Long- man). They assert that the second line always adds meaning; in some fashion it clarifies the first. This latter approach is not only gaining ground of late; it is approaching consensus among younger scholars. One could say that it is “winning by a landslide.” Yet I have an uneasy feeling that twenty years from now scholarship may have come back to a middle position. The truth might indeed lie somewhere between the two.
As in so many areas there are not simply two types-synonymous (where the terms mean the same idea) and synthetic (where the second adds a new idea) but many gra- dations between the two. Some passages exhibit virtually identical meanings (see below), but in some the second adds a slight nuance and in others a great deal of meaning is added to the first. I will seek to demonstrate this below. The many studies pointing to word- pairs (a fixed stock of synonyms that were used regularly) mitigates against the view that there is always development between lines (for a good survey, see LaSor, Hubbard, Bush 1982:314-15). Pairs like earth/dust, enemy/foe, Jacob/Israel, voice/speech, people/na- tion and similar combinations point toward synonymous parallelism on occasion. Con- text as always must decide each case.
a. Synonymous parallelism occurs when the second line repeats the first with little or no added meaning. Often this includes grammatical parallels, as the second line matches the first grammatically (such as prepositional phrase, subject, verb, object) and possibly also matches in meaning. The interpreter in some instances should not read too much into the semantic variation between the two lines, for that could be intended more as a stylistic change for effect. On the other hand, there is frequently an added point, and this leads Alter, Berlin et al. to challenge the traditional approach. For instance, many point to Psalm 2:2-4 as an example of synonymity. Let.us consider each pair at a time. Psalm 2:2a states,
The kings of the earth take their stand and the rulers gather together
While the subjects (“kings of the earth”/“rulers”) are probably synonymous, there is development between “take their stand” and “gather together,” for the second implies the treaty that follows the “stand.” The same is true with verse 3,
“Let us break their chains,” they say,
“and throw off their fetters.”
Certainly “chains” and “fetters” mean the same thing, but there is progression from
“break” to “throw off.” It is unlikely that these are merely stylistic differences.
On the other hand, consider Isaiah 53:5:
But he was pierced for our transgressions, he was crushed for our iniquities;
the punishment that brought us peace was upon him, and by his wounds we are healed.
PWlrj 177
The first two lines more likely exhibit synonymous parallelism, for the word pairs
“pierced/crushed” and “transgressions/ iniquities” do not exhibit significant variation in meaning. Proponents of the synthetic approach argue that the second line intensifies the first and so is not purely synonymous. Yet there is no new idea added; so it could still be labeled “synonymous parallelism.” The latter two lines are clearly synthetic. Line three speaks of the means and line four the result. More difficult is the parallel idea in Psalm 103:3.
who forgives all your sins and heals all your diseases.
Some interpret the second line as physical healing. Certainly the Bible sees a connection between spiritual and physical healing; the two are combined often in Jesus’ healing miracles (such as Lk 5:20). Yet we must be careful not to overexegete poetic parallelism in this light. While such is certainly possible, in Psalm 103 it is debatable. The two word pairs-forgives/ heals and sins/ diseases-often are synonymous in Scripture and in this context I would argue that one should not add physical to spiritual healing. The paral- lelism may be too strong, with the verb therefore referring to spiritual healing. The recent tendency, however, is to see the second line as a reference to physical healing.
b. Step parullelism is also called “synthetic parallelism” and refers to a development of thought in which the second line adds ideas to the first. Some doubt the validity of this category because the further meaning destroys the “parallelism.” Yet it is a poetic form and should be noted. In fact, it is far more common than synonymous parallelism.
A well-known example is Psalm 1:3,
He is like a tree planted by rivers of water, which yields its fruit in its season
and its leaf does not wither.
Whatever he does prospers.
There are three “steps” here, from planting (line 1) to fruitfulness (line 2), to endurance (line 3), to a bountiful harvest (line 4, which drops the metaphor). Often the development is so stark that many think there is no parallelism at all. For instance, Jeremiah 50:19b reads:
But I will bring Israel back to his own pasture, and he will graze on Carmel and Bashan;
his appetite will be satisfied
on the hills of Ephraim and Gilead.
There is some development in the first two lines (some would call it synonymous, but the thought moves from returning to the peaceful grazing awaiting Israel). The second pair may repeat the idea of line two, with the parallelism due to metrics rather than meaning. However, there the movement is from the act of grazing to the results (appetites satisfied). Yet consider also Psalm 139:4,
Before a word is on my tongue you know it completely, 0 Lord.
There is no parallelism here, for the second line completes the idea of the first.
In conclusion, the reader must always let the lines themselves dictate where they lie _
178 The Htrmentuticrl Spiral Poetry
on the scale from synonymous to synthetic to nonparallelism (metrical). I must admit that my own studies have convinced me that Berlin and Longman are mostly correct when they say that the tendency in Hebrew poetry is to add further nuances in the second line.
Nearly every so-called example of synonymity I have seen in my studies (such as Ps 19: 1;
103:7, 1 I-13) has turned out to exhibit some degree of synthetic development. Alter summarizes this school of thought when he asserts that “an argument for dynamic move- ment from one verset to the next - [sic] would be much closer to the truth, much closer to the way the biblical poets expected audiences to attend to their words” (1985: 10). Yet while this is indeed “closer to the truth,” it may well be that the new school is also guilty of excess when it states that there is “always” movement.
Let us consider Proverbs 3:13-20, another text commonly used as an example of synonymous parallelism. Nearly every pair actually exemplifies step parallelism, as verse 16,
Long life is in her right hand, in her left hand are riches and honor.
or v. 17,
Her ways are pleasant ways, and all her paths are peace.
Yet v. 14 is virtually synonymous, for she is more profitable than silver and yields better returns than gold.
One could argue that the second line makes the first more vivid (the same could be said of Is 53:5), but that is hardly a difference in meaning. In short, I would conclude that in some instances (such as Is 53:5; Prov 3: 14) there is no further clarification and therefore they would fit the normal meaning of “synonymous parallelism.” Though some nuance (vividness or concreteness) may be added, there is still synonymity. When there is added meaning the extent of synthetic (or formal) development will differ from case to case;
exegetical study will be needed to decide.
c. Climactic parallelism is a type of step parallelism, but here several units build the thought to a climax. For instance, consider Psalm 8:3-4 (vv. 4-5 are quoted in Heb 2:6b- 8a):
When I consider your heavens, the work of your fingers, the moon and the stars,
which you set in place, What is man
that you think of him, and the son of man
that you care for him?
The first four lines build upon one another in a sense of steps to the climactic denouement in the parallel lines of verse 4. Otto Kaiser speaks of a particular kind of climactic parallelism in which the second line repeats the key word of the first then adds the climactic thought (1975:322). For example, Psalm 29: 1,
179 Ascribe to the Lord, 0 mighty ones,
ascribe to the Lord glory and strength.
Ascribe to the Lord the glory due his name worship the Lord in the splendor of his holiness.
d. Antitheticalpurullelism reverses the stress of the others and is the third of the major types (with synonymous and synthetic). Instead of building upon an idea, the second line is contrasted to the first. However, it still constitutes parallelism, for the second line restates the idea of the first by asserting the opposite. For instance, Proverbs 3: 1 says,
My son, do not forget my teaching, but keep my commands in your heart.
Both units state the same idea but in opposite ways. However, in other cases the antithesis has elements of synthetic parallelism in which the second adds further clarification; for instance, Psalm 20:7 says,
Some trust in chariots and some in horses, But we trust in the name of the Lord our God.
The first line tells what not to trust and the second what to trust. Note also Proverbs 1:7:
The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and instruction.
The wise and the foolish provide the major contrast in the book, but there is clear development from “fear of the Lord” (line one) to “wisdom” (line two). This is paralleled by the upright vs. wicked contrast, as in 3:33,
The Lord curses the home of the wicked, but blesses the home of the righteous.
e. Introvertedparallelism is a particular type of antithetical parallelism, in which two lines are contrasted with two others. Often it is presented in chiastic fashion, where the external pairs are contrasted with the internal pairs (AB BA), as in Psalm 30:8-10 from the Masoretic Text (Mickelsen 1963:326):
Unto thee, 0 Jehovah, I was crying Unto the Lord I was imploring favor.
What is the profit in my blood?
in my going down into the pit?
Will the dust praise thee?
Will it make known thy truth?
Hear, 0 Jehovah, and be gracious to me Be a helper for me.
f. Incomplete parallelism occurs when one element from the first line is omitted in the second; this normally occurs in synonymous lines, as in Psalm 24: 1, where the predicate is missing:
The earth is the Lord’s and everything in it
The world and all who live in it.
g. The ballast variant occurs when the second line compensates for the missing element
/ 1 8 0 The Hermsntutlcrl Spiral Poetry 181 by adding a further thought (Kaiser 1981:220, from Cyrus Gordon). This occurs more
frequently than the pure incomplete form, as in Psalm 18: 17:
He rescued me from my powerful enemy, From my foes, who were too strong for me.
3. Poetic Language and Imagery. The psalmists used many of the rhetorical techniques discussed in previous chapters, such as synonymity, climax and chiasm. In addition, they used paronomasia (play on words), alliteration (where the lines begin with the same letter of the alphabet), acrostics (each line beginning with a successive letter of the alphabet) and assonance (similar sounding words). Paronomasia is exemplified in Isaiah 57, “He looked for justice [miJp@] but there was only bloodshed [mispribj for righteousness [;‘&iq2h] but there was only weeping [;e’tiqNz]” Psalm 119 provides a good illustration of both alliteration and acrostics. The strophes of this magnificent hymn, whic.h.ele- brates the Word of God, begin with successive letters of the alphabet and within each strophe the lines all begin with the same letter (for other acrostic poems, see Ps 25; 34;
37; 111; 112; Lam 3). Assonance is seen in Jeremiah I:1 I-12, where God shows Jeremiah an “almond branch” (Gqitj) and connects this with the promise that he is “watching over” (&q&l) his people. Kaiser seeks an English equivalent: “God showed Jeremiah a
‘pussy-willow branch’ and said, ‘This is what I will-u-do to my people if they do not repent’ ” (1981:227; italics his).
The use of figurative imagery in poetry is particularly rich. The poets constantly reach into the everyday experiences of the people to illustrate the spiritual truths they are espousing. In Psalm 1:3-4 then psalmist contrasts the righteous, who are “like a tree planted by streams of water, which yields its fruit in season” with the wicked, who are like “chaff that the wind blows away.” Such similes are found throughout poetry (Job 30:8; Ps 31:12; Prov 11:12; Is 1:30).
Metaphors are even more frequent. In an especially suitable metaphor, Amos 4:l addresses the “cows of Bashan . . . who oppress the poor , . . and say to your husbands,
‘Bring us some drinks.’ ” In Psalm 19: l-2 creation is personified as a herald (“The heavens declare the glory of God, the skies proclaim the works of his hands”) and as a foreign emissary (“There is no speech or language where their voice is not heard”). Metaphors to depict God naturally are particularly apt. God is pictured as an enthroned king, a shepherd, a warrior, a charioteer, a father, a shepherd, a rock, a refreshing pool and much, much more.
Such imagery draws the readers into the text and forces them to picture the truth in a new way. When God is asked to “take up shield and buckler; arise and come to my aid” (Ps 352) the idea of God as the victorious warrior who fights alongside his people adds rich meaning to this psalm, which asks God’s help against David’s former friends who are slandering him. The potential of such imagery for preaching is great indeed!
Every instance is an illustration waiting to be uncovered.
In conclusion, identifying the type of parallelism is a critical aid to interpretation. This will help us to avoid reading too much into successive lines and to identify the key elements of the passage. When the structural patterns are combined with the imagery
employed within them, a rich devotional as well as preaching experience results. Yet the richness added by metaphors has a corresponding problem-lack of specificity and ac- curacy. As Gerstenberger says, “Poetic language breaks through the confines of rational- istic world views, intuitively approaching the essence of things. Therefore, the use of comparative, inductive, indirect language is imperative for the poet” (1985416-17). In such cases one does not seek “literal” meaning but rather “intended” meaning, that is, the meaning intended in the context of the poem. For instance, Psalm 44: 19 states, “But you crushed us and made us a haunt for jackals, ” which means a desolate uninhabitable area. The psalm itself talks about a crushing military defeat (see vv. 9-16) and this recapitulates that defeat in a section protesting Israel’s innocence before God (vv. 17-22).
While the defeat was indeed serious, metaphors such as “a haunt for jackals” and “sheep to be slaughtered” (v. 22) constitute poetic license describing the- unremitting enmity and suffering Israel experienced from her hostile neighbors.
Types of Poetry
Semitic poetry had its origin in the religious life of the people, both corporate and individual. Prose was inadequate to express the deep yearnings of the soul, and poetry as an emotional, deep expression of faith and worship became a necessity. The many types of religious need called for different types of hymns. Hebrew poetry was not recreational but was functional in the life of the nation and its relationship with Yahweh.
Poetry had a worship function in mediating between the people and God and a sermonic function in reminding the people of their responsibilities before God. The Psalms, for instance, were not peripheral as hymns often are today but were a focal point of the service both in temple and in synagogue. It is not without reason that prophetic utter- ances from God were so frequently given in poetic form. Not only were they more easily remembered, but they were also more emotive and powerful in their message.
1. War Songs. War songs were one of the earliest forms of poetry. The call to arms of Exodus 17:16, the war cry of Judges 7:18, 20 (and perhaps of Num 10:35-36) according to many, have poetic overtones. The best-known are the victory songs of Moses (Ex 15: l- 18) and Deborah (Judg 5); note also the song of victory over the Moabites in Numbers 21:27-30 and the shorter cry regarding David’s military prowess in 1 Samuel 18:7; 21: 11;
and 29:5 (“Saul has slain his thousands, David his tens of thousands”). While in the latter case the dependence upon God was not stressed, most others dwell rapturously upon the hand of God stretched out against the enemies of Israel. The glory belongs to Yahweh, who shares the spoils and the honor with his people.
2. Love Songs. Love songs constitute a second category of poetry. The Song of Songs, which has mystified scholars for centuries, comes immediately to mind. Childs notes five different ways the book has been interpreted throughout history (1979:571-73): (a) Juda- ism and the early church (as well as Watchman Nee, among others, in modern times) allegorized it as picturing the mystical love of God or Christ for his people; (b) some modern scholars have seen it as a postexilic midrash on divine love (similar to the first