SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
4.4 Pattern Recognition
The organizational principles and depth cues determine form perception, that is, what shapes and objects will be perceived. However, for the information in a display to be conveyed accurately, the objects must be recognized. If there are words, they must be read correctly; if there is a pictograph, the pictograph must be interpreted accurately. In other words, good use of the organizational principles and depth cues by a designer does not ensure that the intended message will be conveyed to the observer.
Concern with the way in which stimuli are recog- nized and identified is the domain of pattern recognition.
Much research on pattern recognition has been con- ducted with verbal stimuli. The initial step in pattern recognition is typically presumed to be feature analysis.
If visual, alphanumeric characters are presented, they are assumed to be analyzed in terms of features such as a vertical line segment, a horizontal line segment, and so on. Such an assumption is generally consistent
with the evidence that neurons in the primary visual cor- tex respond to specific features of stimulation. Evidence indicates that detection of features provides the basis for letter recognition (Pelli et al., 2006). Confusion matrices obtained when letters are misidentified indicate that an incorrect identification is most likely to involve a let- ter with considerable feature overlap with the one that was actually displayed (e.g., Townsend, 1971). Detailed evaluations of the features show that line terminations (e.g., the lower termination ofC vs.G) and horizontal lines are most important for letter identification (Fiset et al., 2009).
Letters are composed of features, but they in turn are components of the letter patterns that form syllables and words (see Figure 18). The role played by letter- level information in visual word recognition has been the subject of considerable debate. Numerous findings have suggested that in at least some cases letter-level information is not available prior to word recognition.
For example, Healy and colleagues have found that when people perform a letter detection task while reading a prose passage, the target letter is missed more often when it occurs in a very high frequency word such as the than when it appears in lower frequency words (e.g., Healy, 1994; Proctor and Healy, 1995).
Their results have shown that this “missing-letter” effect is not just due to skipping over the words while reading. To explain these and other results, Greenberg et al. (2004) proposed a guidance-organization model of reading, which has the following properties: Unitization processes facilitate identification of function words
of the reading unit
reading
read ing unit unit
o r e i u n i t
Supra- word level Word level Syllable level Letter level Feature level Actual
input of the reading unit
Figure 18 Levels of representation in reading a short passage of text. Operation of the unitization hypothesis is illustrated by the bypassing of levels that occurs for ‘‘of the.’’ (From Healy, 1994.)
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 89 that operate as cues for the structural organization of
the sentence; this organization then directs attention to the content words, allowing semantic analysis and integration of meaning. In contrast to the unitization hypothesis, Pelli et al. (2003, 2006) have found that a word in isolation cannot be identified unless its letters are separately identifiable and the difficulty in identification of even common words can be predicted from the difficulties in identifying the individual letters.
This has led them to conclude that people identify words as letter combinations and, even more broadly, that
“everything seen is a pattern of features” (Pelli et al., 2003, p. 752).
The primary emphasis in the accounts just described is on bottom-up processing from the sensory input to recognition of the pattern, but pattern recognition is also influenced by top-down, nonvisual information of several types (Massaro and Cohen, 1994). These include orthographic constraints on the spelling patterns, regularities in the mapping between spelling and spoken sounds, syntactic constraints regarding which parts of speech are permissible, semantic constraints based on coherent meaning, and pragmatic constraints derived from the assumption that the writer is trying to com- municate effectively. Interactive activation models, in which lower level sources of information are modified by higher levels, have been popular (e.g., McClelland and Rumelhart, 1981). However, Massaro and col- leagues (e.g., Massaro and Cohen, 1994) have been successful in accounting for a range of reading phe- nomena with a model, which they call thefuzzy logical model of perception, in which the multiple sources of information are assumed to be processed independently, rather than interactively, and then integrated.
Reading can be viewed as a prototypical pattern recognition task. The implications of the analysis of reading are that multiple sources of information, both bottom up and top down, are exploited. For accurate pattern recognition, the possible alternatives need to be physically distinct and consistent with expectancies created by the context. More complex than reading, applied tasks such as identifying unwanted activity from computer log files involve pattern recognition, and the difficulty of these tasks can be minimized by taking pattern recognition accounts when displaying the information that goes into the log files.
5 SUMMARY
In this chapter we have reviewed much of what is known about sensation and perception. Any such review must necessarily exclude certain topics and be limited in the treatment given to the topics that are covered. Mather (2011) provides an accessible overview of sensation and perception that assumes no prior background, and excellent introductory texts that provide more thorough coverage include Schiffman (2001), Goldstein (2010), Sekuler and Blake (2006), and Wolfe et al. (2009).
More advanced treatments of most areas are included in Volume 1 of Stevens’ Handbook of Experimental Psychology (Pashler and Yantis, 2002) and Volume 1
of Handbook of Perception and Human Performance (Boff et al., 1986). Engineering Data Compendium:
Human Perception and Performance(Boff and Lincoln, 1988) is an excellent, although now somewhat dated, resource for information pertinent to many human engineering concerns. Also, throughout the text we have provided references to texts and review articles devoted to specific topics. These and related sources should be consulted to get an in-depth understanding of the rel- evant issues pertaining to any particular application involving perception.
Virtually all concerns in human factors and ergonomics involve perceptual issues to at least some extent. Whether dealing with instructions for a con- sumer product, control rooms for chemical processing or nuclear power plants, interfaces for computer software, guidance of vehicles, office design, and so on, information of some type must be conveyed to the user or operator. To the extent that the characteristics of the sensory systems and the principles of perception are accommodated in the design of displays and the environments in which the human must work, the transmission of information to the human will be fast and accurate and the possibility for injury low. To the extent that they are not accommodated, the opportunity for error and the potential for damage are increased.
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