HANDBOOK OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS

Laboratory for respiratory protection The department for personal protective equipment Central Institute for Workforce Protection-National. Mayhorn Associate Professor Department of Psychology North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina Wayne Maynard.

PREFACE

The primary purpose of this manual is to serve the needs of human factors and ergonomics researchers, practitioners, and graduate students. I was truly fortunate to have the most able input in the preparation of this handbook from Myrna Kasdorf, the handbook's editorial coordinator, who did a truly outstanding job.

THE DISCIPLINE OF HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS

Axiomatic Design: Design Axioms

Axiom 1: The Independence Axiom This axiom stipulates a need for independence of
Axiom 2: The Information Axiom
Axiom 1: The Independence Axiom This axiom stipulates a need for independence of the
Axiom 2: The Human Incompatibility Axiom

According to the second design axiom, the information content of the design must be minimized. Among the designs that satisfy the independence axiom, the design that has the least incompatibility content is the best design.

In the context of axiomatic design in ergonomics, functional requirements are human-system compatibility requirements, while design parameters are human-system interaction. Therefore, ergonomic design can be defined as the mapping of human-system compatibility requirements to human-system interactions.

Axiomatic Design Approach in Ergonomics: Applications

The proposed subdiscipline is called symvatology, or the science of the compatibility between artifacts and humans (system). The above means that only the added complexity of the controller (R= re/design), expressed by the system compatibility requirements (CR), can be used to reduce the ergonomic system entropy (S), i.e. reduce the overall artifact. –incompatibility with human systems.

Complexity 2Design

An example of the mapping between the management knowledge (planning function) and human factors knowledge is shown in Figure 13. 2009a), "Human Systems Integrations Modeling," in Proceedigns of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) , San Antonio, TX, pp.

HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING AND SYSTEMS DESIGN

Human Factors Engineering and the Systems Approach

Changes in Work and Organizational Systems

Brief History of the Systems Approach and Human Factors Engineering
Person –Machine Systems
System Reliability
Human Reliability

Models of System Design
Alternative Approaches to System Design

Incorporating Human Factors in System Design
Applications of Human Factors to System Design Process

System Planning
System Design

Test and Evaluation

Additional needs for new approaches to system design come from the changing nature of the design process. In all cases, the overall performance of the system will be improved with the application of human factors engineering to system design.

HUMAN FACTORS FUNDAMENTALS

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Anatomical and Physiological Methods A variety of speciﬁc techniques exist for analyzing and

The responsiveness of this neuron to different features of stimulation can be examined to gain some understanding of the neuron's role in the sensory system. Neuropsychological studies usually examine patients who have some specific neurological disorder associated with lesions in specific parts of the brain. By comparing measurements taken during a control period with those taken when certain stimuli are present or tasks performed, brain imaging techniques can be used to identify which areas of the brain are involved in processing different types of stimuli. and tasks.

Psychophysical Methods

Psychophysical Measures of Sensitivity Classical Threshold Methods The goal of one class
Psychophysical Scaling
Other Techniques

The placement of the distributions relative to the criterion can be determined as follows. If the criterion is between the two means, the sum of the two scores is calculated. Another way to vary response criteria is to manipulate the relative probability of the signal-and-noise trials.

Vision

Visual System
Basic Visual Perception

This is the area where the optic nerve, made up of the nerve fibers of the neurons in the retina, leaves the eye. When single-cell recording techniques are used to measure their receptive fields (i.e., the areas on the retina that trigger a response in the cell when stimulated), these fields appear to have a circular, center-surrounding relationship for most cells. . Specifically, people with red-green color blindness cannot distinguish between medium and long wavelengths (520-700 nm), and the resulting perception consists of short (blue) versus longer (yellow) wavelength hues. 2002) found that the inability to distinguish colors in certain parts of the spectrum reduces their salience (that is, the ability to attract attention).

Audition

Auditory System
Basic Auditory Perception

When there is fluid movement in the inner ear, the basilar membrane vibrates, causing the cilia of the hair cells to bend. Bandwidth (ie, the range of frequencies in a complex tone) is important in determining its loudness. Basically, he proved that waves travel across the basilar membrane from base to apex at a frequency corresponding to the frequency of the tone.

Vestibular System and Sense of Balance

Although most frequencies can be differentiated in terms of where the peak of the traveling wave occurs, tones of less than 500–1000 Hz cannot be. Frequencies in this range produce a broad displacement pattern with the crest of the wave at the tip. Because of the evidence that frequency and location coding both operate, but over somewhat different regions of the auditory spectrum, it is now generally accepted that frequencies less than 4000 Hz are coded in terms of frequency and those above 500 Hz in terms of place, meaning that at frequencies within this range both mechanisms are involved.

Somatic Sensory System

The nerve fibers for the cutaneous senses have a central peripheral organization of the type found for vision. It goes along the dorsal part of the spine, on one side of the body. Some of the cells in the somatic cortex respond to complex features of stimulation, such as the movement of an object across the skin.

Gustation and Olfaction

The fibers of the anterolateral pathway ascend along the contralateral side of the spinal column and project to the reticular formation, midbrain or thalamus, and then to the anterior parietal cortex and other cortical regions. For smell, molecules in the inhaled air affect receptor cells located in the olfactory epithelium, a region of the nasal cavity. The axons from the olfactory receptors project to the olfactory bulb, located at the front of the brain, via the olfactory nerve.

Perceptual Organization

They line the walls of bumps on the tongue called papillae, but are also located in the throat, palate, and cheeks. The important finding is that when the distracting tone preceded and followed the critical pair several times, the performance was as good as when the two tones were presented separately. For integral dimensions, the rankings slow down when the value of the irrelevant dimension is not correlated with the value of the relevant dimension, but speed up when the two dimensions are correlated.

Spatial Orientation

Visual Depth Perception
Sound Localization

That stereopsis can occur with random dot stereograms suggests that matching the two images can be based on dot density. The speed of this change is a function of the orientation of the surface in depth relative to the line of sight. Both of these signs vary systematically with respect to the position of the sound relative to the listener.

Eye Movements and Motion Perception Because details can be perceived well only at the fovea,

However, this increase in sensitivity for detecting relative motion is at the potential cost of attributing motion to the wrong object. The potential for misattribution of motion is a concern in any situation in which one object moves relative to another. Induced motion is an example of a phenomenon in which the motion of an object is perceived in the absence of motion of its retinal image.

Pattern Recognition

Viewing distance and the resting position of eye muscles,” Human Factors, Vol. 1971), Foundations of Cyclopean Perception, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Read,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Vol. 2011), Essentials of Sensation and Perception, Routledge, New York. 1937), "The Perception of Low Tones and the Resonance Swing Theory," Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1995), "The Proximity Compatibility Principle: Its Psychological Foundation and.

SELECTION AND CONTROL OF ACTION

Action Selection in Single-Task Performance

Uncertainty and Number of Alternatives
Stimulus –Response Compatibility Spatial Compatibility SR compatibility refers to the
Sequential Effects
Preparation and Advance Information When a stimulus to which a response is required occurs
Acquisition and Transfer of Action – Selection Skill

Hyman's law (see Figure 2), sometimes called Hick's law, mentioned in the opening quotation of the chapter. The controlled screen element will move in the same direction as the control side closest to the screen. RT was shorter when the location of the stimulus did not correspond to that of the response than when it did.

Action Selection in Multiple-Task Performance

Task Switching and Mixing Costs Since the mid-1990s, there has been considerable
Psychological Refractory Period Effect Much research on multiple-task performance has focus-

The most widely accepted account of the PRP effect is what has been called the central bottleneck model (e.g. Welford, 1952; Pashler and Johnston, 1998). This model assumes that selection of the response for task 2 (R2) cannot begin until response selection for task 1 (R1) is complete (see Figure 4). First, increasing the duration of response selection for task 2 should not affect the magnitude of the PRP effect because response selection processes occur after the bottleneck.

Control of Action

Fitts’s Law
Motor Preparation and Advance Speciﬁcation of Movement Properties
Visual Feedback

The slope of the Fitts law function was used to evaluate the efficiency of different methods of moving the computer cursor to the target position. Performance during these practice trials was best with full vision and worst with target-only vision. However, when only final visual feedback on the end positions of the movements was provided, visuomotor adaptation to the training conditions occurred.

Coordination of Effectors

In half of the trials, the lights went out at the start of the movement, without the performer's prior knowledge. For example, Proteau and Cournoyer (1992) had people complete 150 trials of moving a pen to a target with either full vision, vision of both pen and target, or vision of the target only. Participants appear to rely on visual feedback for accurate performance without developing an adequate internal model of the task.

Sequencing and Timing of Action

While in some situations the speed with which a sequence of actions is performed is important, in others the timing of the actions is critical. One of the key predictions of the model is that the variance of the interresponse interval should increase as the interresponse delay increases, due to the variability of the internal clock. Another prediction is that adjacent interresponse intervals should be negatively correlated due to variability in the delay process.

Motor Learning and Acquisition of Skill Performance of virtually any perceptual–motor skill

Practice Schedules
Provision of Feedback

Journal of Motor Behavior, Vol. 2002), "Why aggregate learning follows the power law of practice when individual learning does not: Comment Rickard Delaney et al. Theoretical considerations and empirical implications". after practice: Has the bottleneck been eliminated or is it merely latent?” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Vol. 1998), Elements of Human Performance, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, Vol. 2001), "Virtually Perfect Time Sharing in Dual-Task Performance: Uncorking the Central Cognitive Bottneck".

INFORMATION PROCESSING

Melody Carswell University of Kentucky

Selective Attention
Focused Attention
Discrimination and Confusability
Visual Search
Expectancy, Context, and Identiﬁcation We have seen that our knowledge and expectations about
Judgments of Two-Dimensional Position and Extent
Judgments of Distance and Size in Three-Dimensional Space
Motion Perception and Dynamic Displays Although many of the displays discussed above are
Perceptual Organization, Display Organization, and Proximity Compatibility
Working Memory Limitations
Dynamic Working Memory, Keeping Track, and Situation Awareness
Text Processing and Language Comprehension
Spatial Awareness and Navigation

Geographical Knowledge
Navigational Aids

Planning and Problem Solving

Planning
Problem Solving, Diagnosis, and Troubleshooting
Creativity

Metacognition and Change Blindness Blindness
Information and Uncertainty
Complexity of Choice
Probability and Expectancy
Practice
Spatial Compatibility
Modality
Response Discriminability
Feedback
Continuous Control
Errors
Serial Processing and Interruption Management
Concurrent Processing

Task Similarity
Task Demand
Task Structure
Resource Allocation

Or there are errors in limitations in the sensitivity of the operator's own (internal) signal processing systems. The building closer to the top of the image is signaled to be further away (height in the plane), as is the building capturing the smaller retinal image (relative size); the building that hides the contours of the other is seen to be closer (interposition or occlusion). This illusion may be due to the incorrect use of the depth cue that associates height in the image plane with increased distance.

The jagged line indicates the trajectory of the plant parameters (steam pressure and temperature) as they follow the constraints of the thermodynamic laws (proposed but not yet implemented for operational evaluation). It is not itself part of the action (except the actions chosen to obtain new information).

CROSS-CULTURAL DESIGN

Cognition and Human Information Processing

Choong (1996) conducted research that showed that different cultures often focus on different characteristics of the same items or objects. The results showed that performance of the monochronic users fared significantly better using a hierarchical information structure. In a picture sorting task, Nawaz et al. 2007) found that Chinese made less use of specific categories and made more use of the category "other" than Danish users.

Physical Ergonomics and Anthropometry .1 Body Dimension

Movement/Reach Zone
Biomechanics

Over the past 10 years, many institutes, libraries, and commercial companies around the world have conducted extensive research on the collection of anthropometric data on civilians of various nationalities. Classical anthropometric data provide information on the static or structural dimensions of the human body in standard positions. Full grip ZCR data and normal working area coordinates can be found in Pheasant and Haslegrave (2006).

Methodology

Cross-Cultural User Research
International Usability Evaluation The Moderator and the Test Subject Usability
Internationalization and Localization Internationalization is the process of designing a product

Biomechanics explains properties of the human body as a biological system in mechanical terms (Kroemer et al., 1990). The book provides insights into the cultural differences between the Chinese and people from other cultures. All of the above suggestions require a significant amount of training and skill from the evaluator.

Graphical User Interface

Information Organization and Representation
Graphics, Symbols, and Icons
Presentation, Navigation, and Layout There are existing guidelines (e.g., ISO, 1997) for
Color Coding and Affect

For example, English is used in the United States, Great Britain, Canada and many other countries. Rau et al., 2010 Language Consider e.g. language directionality in the design of text boxes. Designers must be aware of different measurement conventions for different locales, for example dimensions, weights, temperatures and paper sizes.

Web/Hypermedia

Information Structure (Navigation and Hyperlinks)
Searching

They reviewed the top 50 e-commerce sites in the US and the top 50 e-commerce sites in China. But Chinese websites are equally likely to use three colors, black, blue and red hyperlink. Lo and Gong (2005) also examined the navigation model of e-commerce websites in the US and China.

Mobile Computing .1 Usage Behaviors

Acceptance of Mobile Phones and Services

Another and relatively less explored strand of cross-cultural design research has focused on cultural differences in cognition. Unfortunately, very little research has followed on these cognitive issues in cross-cultural user interface design. This remains a relatively unexplored but extremely important area for cross-cultural design research in the future.