CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.3. Previous studies
meaning. This elaboration probably increases the chances that the word and its meaning will be available for use at a later time (Lawson & Hogben 1996 :104).
behind this, has also verified that SR may dramatically increase awareness of professional recommendations among existing practitioners, as well as improve retention and core knowledge of medical students. Working doctors (globally) and students (across institutions) accept and participate in learning games at high rates.
To summarize, research has consistently demonstrated that SR is an effective technique for boosting learning and retention in most areas of education. Studies indicate potential in assisting students to learn more and learn quicker, from recalling terminology to integrating concepts emphasized in SR for extremely complicated topics. Improving platforms demonstrates that SR may become even more successful if new technologies emerge to give consumers more convenient and efficient access.
Understanding cognitive aspects such as the distance effect has been demonstrated to benefit learning and memory studies. While spacing techniques and distance considerations, such as the spacing effect, have had an influence in educational settings, they have also had a positive impact in medical professions, with research Rescue is still ongoing. was carried out in order to learn more about Alzheimer's disease (Anderson, 1990) and to investigate early trauma. Four persons with Alzheimer's disease were educated to recall and carry out a future action intention in research at the University of New Orleans. The gap retrieval approach is used in the training program, which entails active efforts to recall information over a lengthy period of time. After a one-week delay, all participants learned to select a colored coupon among a variety of distractions and present it to the tester. After a week of carrying out the initial objective, another coupon was designated as the new training target. All participants successfully learned three consecutive coupon colors after switching to this new task request. These findings suggest that people with Alzheimer's may learn a future memory task and respond to varied task requirements through interval memory practice (McKitrick, Camp et al. Black, 1992). According to the research's authors, the findings allow for future confirmation of distance retrieval as a memory augmentation approach in Alzheimer's disease patients (McKitrick, Camp, and Black, 1992).
research on the influence of spaced repetition on sustaining the meaning of linked speech. It intended to investigate whether such improvement was replicated in substantive retention of an unfamiliar learning segment, as evidenced by a higher chance of answering multiple-choice questions that assess a clear and accurate grasp of the subject 48 hours after first learning. For example, would students benefit from revisiting their lecture or textbook content when studying for an impending objective test? (Ausubel, and Youssef, 1965). The experimental population in this study comprised 87 senior college students from three sections of an educational psychology course at the University of Illinois. Subjects were enrolled in one of nine middle school teacher education programs. The experiment was carried out independently in each unit as a necessary laboratory activity during regular class hours. The instructional material consists of a 1,400-word section dedicated to pubertal endocrinology. It was chosen because it would be unique to students in teacher education. A 36-item multiple-choice exam with modified dichotomous confidence was used to assess knowledge of the literature. The subjects were allocated to either the experimental or control groups at random. To balance the subjects in each group, each group was stratified by sex. The experimental group was given 25 minutes to read and study the material, whereas the control group was given the same amount of time to read and analyze a completely unrelated section about the history of drug addiction. Two days later, both groups were required to spend 25 minutes studying the paragraph. After 48 hours, each group was given a multiple-choice test. The results reveal that the difference in averages between the experimental and control groups is statistically significant above the 0.001 confidence level for the one-sided test. Based on the therapies, there was a substantial difference between the groups. The experimental group's mean value was 24.25, whereas the control group's was 19.63. In addition to improving learning and meaning retention in these two direct ways, repeating influences these processes in two indirect ways, via changes in the cognitive structure generated by the initial trial. The initial exposure to the content allows learners to understand it when they view it again (Ausubel, and Youssef, 1965).
practice and interleaved evaluation may be applied for all areas. Bahrick et al. (1993) conducted a 9-year longitudinal study in which four individuals researched and reinterpreted 300 pairs of English-foreign terms. Over the course of 14, 28, or 56 days, 13 or 26 reallocation sessions were carried out. Retention is assessed after one, two, three, or five years of training. The greater time range in acquisitions has reduced training slightly, but this has been mitigated by high retention. Thirteen repeats 56 days apart resulted in retention equivalent to 26 sessions 14 days apart. The retention effect was attributable to distance, and both factors aided in word retention independent of difficulty level or consistency of retrieval throughout training (Bahrick et al, 1993). Repetition reading was identified as a known approach for increasing pupils' text recall in a comparable research (Durgunoglu et al, 1993). The researchers looked at factors that influence the efficacy of repeated readings. University students read narrative or narrative materials and answered comprehension questions about the texts in four experiments. The time interval between repeats (batch or spaced repetitions), language of the iterations (similar or different), and pattern of behavior between the two repetitions (interleaved or non-interleaved chunks)) are all adjusted.
These factors have an effect solely on text-based questions requiring detail, not on questions requiring important concepts and conclusions. Spaced repeated readings outperform bulk repeated reads in terms of performance. A multilingual presentation, on the other hand, can avoid the drawbacks of batch repetition (Durgunoglu, et al, 1993). The distance effect has been used to evaluate learning and memory abilities in a variety of ways. In visual identification tests, the distance effect has also been employed. Allyson Cahill and Thomas Toppino (1993) performed a research in which preschool and second grade students examined lists of pictures or their associated labels (words) and then got a recognition test 48 hours later that did/did not feature the same images or the opposite stimulus type. Some items on the study list are repeated, either in huge quantities or randomly (spaced out). The findings showed that when both the learning and testing stimuli were visual, the children's cognitive capacities were higher than when only the learning and/or verbal tests were stimulated. Scattered repetition was likewise preferred by the children over bulk repetition (spacing effect).
the spacing effect. The findings imply that the spacing effect is mediated by a semantic representation and that it is created by relatively automated processes under these conditions (Cahill, and Toppino, 1993).
As revealed in a study on free-throw performance, the spacing effect is beneficial with psychological performance (Predebon and Docker, 1992). The influence of pre-free- kick behaviors on the free-throw behavior of experienced basketball players was investigated in this study, which was carried out at the University of Sydney. Thirty male volunteers were randomly allocated to one of three groups: no habit, conventional physical habit, or visual/physical habit. The performance of the subjects was evaluated across four sessions spread out over a six-week period. Subjects were given a normal shot in advance of their condition between sessions. During the first session, all participants attempted to throw according to their typical pre-shot protocol; however, the subsequent three sessions required them to execute as instructed by the condition. In general, the visual group outperformed the regular group and, as a result, outperformed the occasional group. The final test session performance for the physical/visual processing groups, but not the non-procedural group, was comparable to the participants' regular performance prior to pre-recording, showing that the withdrawal activity was effective. The frequency of experienced players has a long-term negative impact on their free-throw performance (Predebon and Docker, 1992).
Kitao conducted a study on the complete processing theory of the spacing effect at Osaka University of Education (1992). The stated hypothesis was: the complete processing hypothesis of the spacing effect relates poor memory of massed repeated items to a failure to fully process the repeated items. In two tests, this study tested the applicability of this concept to a phrase free recall task. By delivering each phrase with or without an intervening one, the spacing impact was examined. The rehearsal approach was utilized to improve the complete processing of a large number of repeated elements. In both tests, I and ll spaced presentation resulted in much greater recall than massed presentation. Nevertheless, when complete processing was
comparable to spaced clones. These findings imply that poor batch processing contributes to the spacing effect of the free sentence recall test (Kitao, 1992).
A further research at the University of North-Western that looked at the distance effect was on the unmistakable effects of distance on freedom recall (Hall, 1992). The overall number of hits for lists including batch repetitions is the same as for lists having spaced repeats in three experiments without mixed lists. This data, as well as the difference in serial locations between spaced and batch lists in the recall model, imply that the replacement operation (examine the list items first that) is more prevalent during bulk list research. These findings suggest that the replacement mechanism plays a significant role in giving the standard free collection advantage for in-stock products over high-volume listings. For distance testing, mixed and unmixed list designs will be favoured. They also suggest that putative free-withdrawal trials are not instructional on the impacts of distance studies vs batch studies, because free- withdrawal maneuvering methods result in mass separations (Hall, 1992).
The material was repeated in huge numbers, according to an essay by Michael J.
Kahana and Robert L. Greene that was repeated at different times. They ran three tests in the study and found no spacing effect in the free recall of lists including items with a high degree of semantic similarity between the contents. However, the gap effect is observed when these materials are subjected to discriminant or frequency identification tests. The findings confirmed their theory that the spacing effect is caused by numerous separate mechanisms (Kahana and Greene, 1993).
The spacing effect has already been found to be useful in a variety of study possibilities in previous studies. In a number of study circumstances, the benefits of alternating practice and spaced review have been proven to increase and improve learning and memory. These cognitive components have been demonstrated to enhance computers and computer software systems.
The spacing effect is indeed a prominent phenomenon that has been demonstrated several times using a variety of materials. The distance effect has been proven in free recall, tentative recall of paired associations, phrase recall, and textual document
implying that disciplines such as science may be altered via the distance effect.
Furthermore, the consequences of distant education can be quite long-lasting (Anderson, 1990).
Doris Aaronson (1994) claims in a paper on the use of computers in cognitive psychology that computer systems have heavily affected theoretical approaches in cognitive psychology. In fact, the computer has been regarded as a symbolic or conceptual model for human cognitive processing. These days, computers and humans are both regarded as common information processors (Aaronson, 1994). Aaronson continues by claiming that computers not only influence our theoretical thinking but also impact our technique in cognitive research. The use of computers to conduct psychological experiments has aided cognitive research by expanding the number of study models available and the temporal accuracy with which stimuli can be presented and responses measured (Aaronson, 1994).
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 3.1. Research Questions
The study sought to ascertain the impact of the spaced repetition strategy on the vocabulary retention of high school pupils. Its specific goal is in order to seek answers to the following question:
school students’ vocabulary retention?”
3.2. Research Methods
This research was planned to be a pilot study. According to Nunan (1992), empirical research is classified into three types: pre-empirical, semi-empirical, and experimental design. Only one experimental group was treated in the pre-trial research design, and there was no untreated control group. A partial trial is research that gathers data from pre-trials and post-trials including a control group and trial participants. The test results will then be compared to see whether there are any variations in performance that could justify the treatment's impact. Nevertheless, there was no random assignment of individuals to control or experimental groups in the semi-empirical research design. The last category, considered the most successful research design of the three, is the actual experiment, in which volunteers are randomly allocated and dispersed to the experimental and control groups before and after the test to gather data.
Because the experiment was done on a pupil-volunteer basis, the researcher was unable to assign individuals at random in this study. As a result, a semi-empirical design was used to explain and illustrate the efficacy of the spaced repetition strategy on vocabulary retention among high school students at Viet Yen Number 1 High School.
Because the researcher utilized both control and experimental groups, a variety of semi-empirical designs and non-equivalent control group designs are acceptable for this study; nonetheless, there is no randomness in the sampling. Twenty-six students from grade 11A5 consented to participate in the trial, and the treatment was rereading to assist pupils in maintaining their vocabulary.
Post-test Treatment
Pre-test 2 Pre-test 1
Experimental group
Post-test Pre-test 2
Pre-test 1 Control
Group
3.3. Subjects of the Research
The research was undertaken with the participation of 26 high school students of Viet Yen Number 1 High School in the 2nd term of the school year of 2020 – 2021. They were from class 11A5, the experimental group consisted of 13 students and the remaining 13 students belonged to the control group.
3.4. Data Collection Instrument (Tests)
The main goal of this study was to discover an efficient method of spaced repetition to assist students in improving their vocabulary memory. As a result, before and after testing is frequently used as a data-gathering method.
Testing is also the greatest technique to offer objective information about the participants' knowledge and skills. A test, like a survey, is simple to compare and evaluate across responders. As a result, the researcher determined that the tests would be the primary data gathering instrument for this study.
The whole 2-month experimental process will have 5 lessons, each lesson will have 6 sessions for evaluation.Before the experiment, the students will have to go through 2 pre-tests; specifically, a test of the student's vocabulary level after learning the vocabulary 2 months before applying the spaced repetition method and a test randomly having words and phrases the students will learn in the experimental period.
After 2 months, students will do a post-test that randomly contains words from the 5 lessons they have learned in 2 months. Therefore, the whole team will go through a post-test and 2 pre-tests together.
3.5. Procedure of Data Collection
Prior to using the spaced repetition approach, the researcher determined who would be in the control and experimental groups and had the two groups complete two pre-tests.
The researchers utilized the spaced repetition strategy with the experimental group in the second stage. The researcher developed five different lessons for students to study over the course of two months (6 sessions) with the assistance of an instructor.
control groups to assess differences and get information to evaluate the efficiency of spaced repetition strategies on students' vocabulary retention.
The procedure is summarized below:
Lesson Detail Supplementary exercises Expected Outcomes
Week 1:
Pre-test
Words and phrases learned 2 months before the experimental period
o Selected a group of 26 students
o Ask Ss to play the game Quizizz as the Pre-test 1 that have Words and phrases they learned 2 months before
o Teach Ss Lesson 1, then after 1 hour ask them to study it again and finally ask them to play the game Quizizz as the Pre- test 2 that have Words and phrases they learned after 1 hour.
o Divided students into 2 groups: The experimental group and Control group o Implied spaced repetition method on the Experimental group
- Labelled the student work from S1-S26
From Week 2
to Week 7
Because calculating the practice days was extremely complicated, the author needed to make formulas on the website
“Notion”: https://www.notion.so/Push- Dates-Forward-
f7f8488853764faab3a590dcb19b6e3f ( Students in turn learned from lessons 1 to 5 between 4th February to 9th April. The author had set up a formula to calculate the learning time so that the next learning sessions are pushed according to the previous convention: 1 - 3 - 7 - 16 - 30 -
- 78 pre-tests and post-test results of the Experimental group and Control group: 52 pre-test
Here is a picture of that website:
o In each practice day, students needed to review the lesson in the app “Quizlet” on time. (With the same lesson, this
application can create many different types of lessons such as matching,
flashcards, rewriting the meaning, and so on to help students not get bored.)
results (Pre- test 1 and 2), 26 post-test results
- 390 practice test results of the
Experimental group
Week 8:
Post- test
Words and phrases learned 2 months in the whole
experimental period
o Ask Ss play the game Quizizz as the Post-test
(Experimental group and Control group)
- Labelled the student work from S1-S26
3.6. Data analysis
Data from the tests were gathered, summarized, and displayed using a system of charts or tables in Microsoft Excel. Both groups' pre and post-test data were combined. The numbers for both groups were then compared to see if there was any significant difference in the test scores obtained by the two groups, which could indicate the influence of the spaced repetition strategy on improving students' vocabulary retention.
Based on the test results, the researchers compared the information she had with the findings of prior studies to check for any parallels and discrepancies, then reviewed the contemporary research findings and reached a conclusion.
CHAPTER IV
FINDING AND DISCUSSION
presents statistics from student assessments demonstrating how spaced repetition increases vocabulary retention of the Viet Yen Number 1 High school student. The final part describes the test findings.
4.1. Findings of initial levels of understanding and vocabulary retention
4.1.1. Students’ initial levels of understanding after learning 2 months before the experimental period (Pre-test 1)
The number of words and phrases for the pre and post-test was 11.
Based on the Correct words (CR) each student remembered; the individual vocabulary knowledge was calculated using the following formula:
Vocabulary Knowledge = Vocabulary retention = 100: 11 * CR
Students' vocabulary knowledge has been divided into several categories to better clarify their vocabulary retention ability. The grouping criteria and names allocated to each group (No Misunderstandings, Great Understanding, Good Understanding, Moderate Understanding, Some Understanding, and Little to No Understanding), as indicated in the table below, were merely provided by the researcher herself based on the students' pre-test 1 results, with the goal of presenting a clearer picture of the students' vocabulary knowledge rather than any established benchmarking framework.
Table 1. Students’ initial levels of vocabulary knowledge after learning 2 months before the experimental period
Vocabulary knowledge levels
Understandin g
Group (N=13)
Control Experimental
No Misunderstanding = 100% 0 0
Great Understanding < 100% 0 0
Good Understanding ≤ 85% 0 0
Moderate Understanding ≤ 70% 1 2
Some Understanding ≤ 55% 7 4
Little to No Understanding ≤ 30% 4 7
As can be seen from the table, before Spaced repetition method was applied, in both groups, there are no students considered no misunderstandings learners who could understand 100% vocabulary they have learned. In both groups, all students fell to