DOAN HONG HANH
STUDENT ID NUMBER: DTS185D140231012
THE IMPACT OF SPACED REPETITION SYSTEM ON VOCABULARY RETENTION OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
GRADUATION PAPER
MAJOR: ENGLISH EDUCATION
Supervisor: PhD Ngo Thi Bich Ngọc
Thai Nguyen, 1st May 2022
TABLE OF CONTENT...
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background and context...1
1.2. Scope of the Research...3
1.3. Research Aims...3
1.4. Research Questions...3
1.5. Relevance of the Research...3
1.6. Structure of the Research...4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. The definition of Spaced Repetition and its work principles...5
2.1.1. The forgetting curve...5
2.1.2. The spacing effect...7
2.1.3. The testing effect...8
2.1.4. Retention...8
2.1.5. Learning through spaced repetition recall...10
2.2. Vocabulary...11
2.2.1. Vocabulary knowledge...11
2.2.2. Vocabulary retention...12
2.3. Previous studies...14
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1. Research Questions...21
3.2. Research Methods...21
3.3. Subjects of the Research...22
3.4. Data Collection instrument...22
3.5. Procedure of data collection...23
3.6. Data analysis...25
CHAPTER 4. FINDING AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Findings of initial the levels of understanding and vocabulary retention ...26
experimental period (Pre-test 1)...27
4.1.3. Students' Vocabulary retention after learning 1 hour (Pre-test 2)...28
4.2. Comparison of the levels of understanding and vocabulary retention of the Control and the Experimental group after the experimental period...30
4.2.1. Changes in vocabulary knowledge levels...31
4.2.2. Changes in vocabulary retention...32
4.2.2.1. Changes in vocabulary retention of individual students after 1 hour and after 2 months ...32
4.2.2.2. Changes in vocabulary retention of individual students before and after 2 months ...33
4.3. Findings from practice by sessions...34
4.4. Discussion...36
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION 5.1. Summary of the study...39
5.2. Implications...39
5.3. Limitations of the study...40
5.4. Recommendations for further study...40
REFERENCES...42
APPENDIXES...46
Number Symbol Means
1 SR Spaced Repetition
2 CW Correct word
Numbe r
Table Content Page
1 1 Students’ initial Levels of Vocabulary knowledge after learning 2 months before the experimental period
22
2 2 Students’ initial Vocabulary retention after learning 2 months before the experimental period
23
3 3 Students’ Vocabulary retention after learning 1 hour 24 4 4 Brief report about the number of students who made
changes 25
5 5 Changes in students’ vocabulary knowledge levels after the research period
26
6 6 Changes in vocabulary retention of individual
students after 1 hour and after 2 months 27 7 7 Changes in vocabulary retention of individual
students before and after 2 months 28
8 8 Information from the practice of the experimental
group by sessions 29
9 9 Information from the practice of the control group
by sessions 30
Numbe r
Figure Content Page
1 1 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting curve 6
2 2 Projected Forgetting curve 7
3 3 Non-Randomized Control Group Design 19
4 4 Students’ initial vocabulary retention after learning 2 months before the experimental period
24
5 5 Students’ forgetting curve after learning 1 hour
25
6 6 Students' average vocabulary retention before and after the research period
29
7 7 Students' average vocabulary retention during the research period
30
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background and Context
Language plays a crucial role in communication which helps people to show their viewpoints and feelings. Since English has become a trans-national language, especially its importance in banking, trade, media, culture, the arts, and academia, some nations whose original language is not English have adopted it as a second or primary foreign language, and an increasing number of individuals have elected to acquire English as one of their foreign languages. Learning English is a key to unlock new opportunities in any field, as well. People have discovered different methods for mastering English, such as watching movies, listening to music, utilizing flashcards, and so on.
At educational institutions and in our lives, vocabulary has often been seen to be one of the most significant aspects of English learning. Vocabulary knowledge is essential for learners learning English as a foreign language (EFL). Alhaysony (2012) states that vocabulary ite.ms are important in all language abilities (listening, speaking, reading, and writing); an appropriate vocabulary is necessary for EF.L students to succeed. To put it in another way, vocabulary is important to language teaching and learning. Learners who lack language knowledge are unable to grasp what others are saying or communicate their own views. Harmer (1991) argues that if language structures are the skeleton of language, then words are the main organs and flesh and Wilkins (1972) argues that we cannot fully express if have no grammar. It indicates that without grammar, very little can be provided, and without vocabulary, there's nothing to be reached. Linse (2006) also believes that if pupils' vocabulary grow, their language abilities will increase. Vocabulary knowledge also aids in the development of language understanding and plays a pivotal part in English communication (Krashen & Terrel, 1985). Words are particularly crucial in language acquisition, according to Soureshjani (2011), because they are the core components of language and the elements of meaning from which larger language structures including
learners' ability to acquire a language might be hampered by a lack of vocabulary knowledge. As a result, vocabulary knowledge is an important aspect of language learning. Students' linguistic abilities will deteriorate if they lack vocabulary.
Nevertheless, it was discovered that a number of pupils at EFL schools struggled to grasp vocabulary.
An inadequacy of word recognition might pose challenges for EFL students.
According to Ahmadi, Ismail, and Abdullah (2012), a lack of adequate word recognition is a big hurdle when having conversations in a foreign tongue and might lead to misconceptions while speaking and writing, as well as a loss of enthusiasm in reading. Tunchalearnpanih (2013) also noted that Thai EFL learners had low English vocabulary knowledge, which hampered their verbal communication skills.
Despite the fact that vocabulary is an important aspect of English language use, EFL students find it difficult to acquire new words. Mccarthy and O'Dell (2002) believed that vocabulary development is a tough endeavour for ESL students the research of Al-Ghazo and Alsobh (2015), they discovered that EFL students struggled with vocabulary learning. Learning new vocabulary items is a challenging undertaking for EFL students, and they frequently complain about losing previously taught vocabularies (Rahimy & Shams, 2012). According to Saengpakdeejit (2014), in Thailand, the primary challenge that Thai students face is a lack of lexical knowledge.
Ah.madi et al. (2012) revealed that a lack of excellent vocabulary development is a significant impediment to communicating in a foreign language. Throughout the course of studying English, E.FL students face vocabulary.-.related challenges, since a lack of word recognition leads to communication misunderstandings. Moreover, the apparent problem in vocabulary learning is acquiring and retaining English terms. The biggest issue for learners is that they have already known certain words and phrases;
however, they cannot recall them whenever they need them since they cannot retain them. Students may have learned a new word, but the next time they cannot remember the word and what it means, which is called “tip-of-the-tongue states” – a common problem with bilinguals.
Kapukaya (2006), the effectiveness of pupils' vocabulary learning is dependent on how they are taught. In other words, how teachers educate has an impact on pupils' learning. According to Richards and Schmidt (2002), the quality of instruction, the learners' enthusiasm, and the relevance of the contents all influence vocabulary development. As a result, instructional strategies should be explored in order to improve students' vocabulary acquisition and overcome vocabulary-learning issues.
1.2. Scope of the research
It is expected that this research yields some discernible outcomes; however, there are certain flaws that add to the study's limitations. This study concentrates solely on spaced repetition, which may be used to improve students' vocabulary memory in a short amount of time.
1.3. Research Aims
This study aims at improving high school students’ vocabulary retention through spaced repetition technique. It is expected that spaced repetition will help high school students enhance their language memory.
1.4. Research Questions
The study sought to ascertain the impact of the spaced repetition strategy on the vocabulary retention of high school pupils. Its specific goal is in order to seek answers to the following questions:
1. “To what extent does the spaced-repetition method have effectiveness on high school students’ vocabulary retention?”
1.5. Relevance of the Research
It is believed to be pivotal to high school teachers, high school students and future researchers in this research.
High school teachers: The study's findings will give important feedback for them to be able to create their own educational material to improve teaching approaches.
vocabulary retention. Consequently, kids will indeed be aware of their deficiencies and will be able to design strategies to increase their vocabulary.
Future Researchers: This will be useful for other researchers who would like to do the same research. This work could be used by future scholars to enhance their understanding.
1.6. Structure of the Research
The study is divided into 5 chapters and a few appendixes.
Chapter 1 – Introduction consists of Backgroun.d and con.text; Sco.pe of the Study;
Re.search Struc.ture; Research Que.stions; Relev.ance of the Study; Research Purposes.
Chapter 2 – Literature review summarizes the literat.ure and similar studies that the research.er believes are closely connected to the current investigation.
Chapter 3 – Methodology depicts the research's methodology and materials which include the subject of the investigation, research design, data gathering devices, data collection protocol, and data analysis procedure.
Chapter 4 – Results and Discussions have the data acquired in the assessment of the usefulness of spaced repetition on students' reading fluency is shown, analysed, and interpreted.
Chapter 5 – The conclusion provides an overview of the study along with its limitations. Furthermore, it provides several tips for students to use the spaced repetition approach as well as proposals for further research.
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. The definition of Spaced Repetition and its work principles
SR works by utilizing 3 psychological happenings that assist studying and recollection: (1) the forgetting curve, which demonstrates how people can anticipate when an individual will forget information; (2) the spacing effect, which illustrates that learning just prior to we anticipate results in exponential merit in memorization;
and (3) the testing effect demonstrates that self-testing reinforces these benefits. This section goes into further information about how each of these occurrences operates.
2.1.1. The Forgetting Curve
Memories vanish as time passes. This is a rather typical occurrence, and the projected decline in recall likelihood is referred to by memory scientists as the "forgetting curve." Recognizing and defining forgetting curves is critical for SR as SR tells the user to re-execute exactly before information known to the user is anticipated to be lost based on the individual's forgetting curve. The importance of this stem from the well-documented empirical understanding that there is an optimal period to consolidate a piece of knowledge that can be useful for individuals to remember it:
wait too long, and the material is not recalled; study too soon, and time is wasted since it is recalled too quickly.
Hermann Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, discovered the forgetting curve in 1885. Ebbinghaus demonstrated this by having people memorize a series of meaningless phrases and then testing their ability to remember them. After they've learned them, repeat them at 20-minute intervals for up to a month. By repeatedly evaluating his subject's capacity to recall syllables after long intervals since initially learning them, he was capable of defining the shape of the forgetting curve and demonstrating exponential speed.
Figure 2. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting curve
Ebbinghaus’s basic experiment demonstrated that a learner's ability to recall information starts to degrade the moment they obtain it. After only 20 minutes, the average user has a less-than-6% probability of recalling a specific nonsense phrase. It took him less than a half-hour to understand it. They have lost nearly 3/4 of their information after a day. After a month, two out of every ten things that the students have learned to recollect. Ebbinghaus established that, for the most part, the forgetting curve is universal for any provided subject matter and that the rate of memory deterioration differs little amongst learners.
Ebbinghaus also observes that the performance curve is "exponentially declining,"
implying that a significant percentage of the learned content is swiftly lost. Despite the fact that initial attenuation is severe, the decay rate will gradually decrease with time.
This indicates that the greater a memory is retained, the less likely it is to be lost in the future: the "surviving" material grows gradually less likely to be lost. Over time, I've become more oblivious. Consequently, if an individual wish to remember anything for a long period, the longer they can remember it in the early phases of the study, the slower the knowledge decays.
For SR users, this implies that a few early assessments will successfully identify items that have unavoidably been forgotten for re-study while preserving numerous "live"
memories. Because the initial tests were successful, the time between the next scheduled rehearsal was prolonged until they reached the flatter section of the curve.
future.
2.1.2. The Spacing Effect
The forgetting curve results in the spacing effect. This theory holds that acceptable repetition of learning reduces memory decline, correcting the slope of the forgetting curve and allowing for more time between revisions. The spacing effect grows with time, such that by the fourth and fifth reviews of a specific piece of information, the increasing distance between review sessions is obvious, and the user does not need to revisit it later a few hours so that no considerable loss occurs, but must be reassessed in a few days or weeks.
Figure 2. Projected Forgetting curve
This is significant since it suggests that by enduring the first storm of studying the SR algorithm a few times in a few days, consumers receive a very high rate of return on information retention with little maintenance required. One may envision a user in law school studying a few times at the start of the semester, then the material is basically
"submitted" for the test at the conclusion of the semester owing to this phenomenon.
In that regard (and as discussed further below in section V on the use of SR in legal education), 1 learner can obtain significant test material in Contracts or processes. Folk customs and, with minimal maintenance beyond the first year, practically remembering everything for the bar test more than two years later.
Lastly, when individuals use spaced repetition to study, they benefit from the "testing effect," which shows that people are more likely to retain learned knowledge when they self-check examine than passively observe it. While non-response testing increases learning and memory, the benefit is amplified when supplemented with meaningful feedback from the right responses. Tests are more than simply an assessment tool; they are also an excellent technique to reinforce learning and improve long-term memory. According to research, self-checking once can be as helpful as passively examining material five times in terms of helping people recall knowledge.
In the second research on the benefits of testing, a group of students was randomly assigned to different study or test regimens, or to study and test. A week later, the pupils who had been assessed had memorized 80% of the vocabulary, compared to 35% of those who had not.
Trials have proven a successful technique for supporting learning in a variety of contexts. Tests have proven to be an effective method for assisting in studying in a variety of contexts. In one research, for example, medical residents performed better when they assessed themselves with questions rather than simply reading facts.
Testing as a preparation method for the GRE exam has been demonstrated to be more beneficial for GRE test preparation. When the exam was utilized to understand information ranging from prose passages to scientific concepts, similar findings were obtained. As SR users examine information when requested, they are taking advantage of the experimental effect by continually forcing themselves to put what they have learned to the test. It is not necessary to understand the underlying mechanics of SR in order to benefit from its impact.
2.1.4. Retention
The process of transferring new knowledge into long-term memory is known as learning retention. This indicates that you have efficiently absorbed the knowledge and will be able to recall it in the future.
If you do not retain what you have learnt, it will fade from your short-term memory after a set period of time.
keep you engaged with the subject. This will assist your brain in recognizing this new knowledge as significant.
The completion of follow-up visits and procedures as described in a research protocol is referred to as "maintenance." This definition can apply to any study, and operational definitions frequently reflect the study's key aims and outcomes. Two retention measures were proposed for MTN-013/IPM 026, one during the research period and one at the conclusion. If the Protocol Chair and/or Protocol Statisticians so want, extra retention measures may be established and employed during the research.
During the trial, members' retention of scheduled follow-up visits will be determined based on whether they completed scheduled visits within the visit window. Members who finish their planned visits within the visit window will be deemed "retained" for those visits.
Retention will be judged at the conclusion of the research depending on whether participants completed Day 52 / Final Test / Deactivation. Although every attempt should be made to complete each participant's study departure visit within the window period, exit visits will be authorized at any time up to each participant's research end date. Participants who complete the departure visit before the study's end date will be considered to remain at the study's conclusion.
As previously stated, participants who do not finish a specific scheduled visit within the assigned time period (when access time is available), but then finish the next scheduled visit, will not be considered withholding a missed visit but will be considered withholding the next scheduled visit. As a result, retention might vary over time and between visits. Importantly, the retention gap may be accounted for simply redirecting participants to their next scheduled session after they miss one.
The process of holding or maintaining a notion, according to the Penguin Dictionary of Psychology (1985), is referred to as retention. It is most typically employed for difficulties with knowledge retention, where the underlying premise is that some
"mental content" has existed since the moment of initial exposure to the material or
dependent variable.
2.1.5. Learning through spaced-repetition recall
According to studies in the field of learning and memory, individuals have better long- term retention when they read something once and then try to recollect it, as opposed to reading it over and over again (Roediger & Butler, 2011; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Long-term retention is further improved by increasing the time between each subsequent recall, a technique known as spaced iteration testing (Roediger & Butler, 2011; Wozniak, 1990). When employing spaced repetition, for example, a student who accurately recalls knowledge studied one day ago will not be tested again for two days. If the student recalls at that moment, the following exam maybe four days later.
As long as the student replies properly, the period between tests grows (e.g. the next three intervals would be 10 days, two weeks, three weeks). If the response is erroneous, the knowledge is rechecked that day until the answer is accurate, and then the learner continues to study again on a long-term basis during the test period.
Flashcards are a great tool for testing memory; however, a number of foreign language students utilize them ineffectively. Repetition of intermittent testing during learning activities (breaks between study sessions; Kornell, 2009; Underwood, 1970); however, many students report that when studying with flashcards, they do the opposite: they break up the cards into smaller sets to save time flipping through the cards and postpone the lesson or school day right before the test (Kornell, 2009). These two activities encourage short-term but not long-term retention and, as a result, a sense of familiarity with the content throughout learning. As a result, students anticipate that volume work papers will be remembered more than timely work documents (Kornell, 2009).
In SLA, spaced repetition testing is great for vocabulary learning. All components of SLA - vocabulary, grammar, speaking, and listening - provide intrinsic obstacles, although the vocabulary sounds different in many ways. Adult learners have trouble identifying L2 sounds (Werker, 1989), and a lifetime of producing native phonemes and employing a certain grammatical structure causes comparable learning barriers.
Wang & Liu, 2013). Many language instructors do not emphasize vocabulary in the classroom, presuming that pupils can learn vocabulary on their own (Zimmerman, 1997). While this is true, vocabulary causes more issues, mistakes, and disappointments for students than grammar (Leki & Carson, 1994; Meara, 1980, 1984). The efficacy of spaced repetition testing for long-term retention of L2 vocabulary. Experimental research has proven the usefulness of spaced repetition testing for long-term retention of L2 vocabulary (Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick &
Bahrick, 1993; Bloom & Shuell, 1981; Ellis, 1995), but these solid empirical proofs were not made immediately in the class. A prepared curriculum is a huge impediment.
Mobile devices may now sidestep this, making learning more comfortable outside of the classroom, but also more sophisticated (e.g., spacing algorithms can be developed with minimum effort). from the pupils))
194
Chun and Plass (1997) explain how second
language reading research is focused on the cognitive processes
which are involved in
reading and suggest that
integrating verbal and
visual information especially through
using multimedia can be eective. ey emphasize that vocabularies
associated with various types of
multimedia improves recall and retention and learners learn words better when words are coded dually in two modes. erefore, they propose that studies should focus on the
eectiveness of speci c sorts of
multimedia for speci c
types of learners, for
speci c cognitive
processes as well as for speci c learning tasks.
Moreover, Yeh and Wang (2003) examined the use of three types of
vocabulary annotations on vocabulary
learning including text
annotation only, text plus picture, and text plus
picture and sound.
Moreover, they
wanted to consider
whether learners with speci c perceptual
learning styles (auditory,
visual-verbal, visual-
nonverbal, and mixed preferences) bene ted more from a particular type of vocabulary
annotations. Text
plus picture was reported to be the most in uential type of vocabulary
annotation and perceptual learning
styles did not have
considerable impact on the usefulness of
vocabulary annotations.
In addition, Plass, Chun,
Mayer and Leutner (2003)
conducted a study
regarding annotations.
Learners
received no annotations, verbal annotations, visual annotations or both verbal and visual annotations.
Results
showed that recall of word translations was worse for learners with low-verbal
and low-spatial abilities when
learners received visual annotations. However, there were no signi cant
dierences among students
when
they received verbal
annotations. Moreover, learners who received
visual annotations could not comprehend
the text. Furthermore, Amemiya, Hasegawa, Kaneko, Miyakoda and Tsukahara (2007)
conducted a study in
order to consider the eect of iPod in language
learning. e learners rst selected the foreign words that they
wanted to learn by the use
of their computers. en,
they downloaded the
corresponding contents into their
iPods. e contents
included the pronunciation of each word with a series of either still or moving
images
related to the foreign words. Moreover, they
compared their study with paper and pencil method.
e results
revealed that their method was 1.5 times better than the paper and pencil
method in memorization of
words.
Kim and Gilman (2008)
examined learners’ English vocabulary learning
through the application of multimedia
components in a web- based self-instruction program. e results
indicated that learners’
vocabulary
increased when they
received visual text and added graphics or visual text, added spoken text, and added
graphics instruction. ey believe that learning
English vocabulary can be
improved by oering graphics
that illustrate what the
vocabulary means. Rimrott (2010) also considered the usefulness of annotations for vocabulary learning.
Learners received a
translation, an example sentence and one of ve annotation clusters
including picture and gloss, de nition and
gloss, picture and audio
presentation, de nition
and audio, and
picture, audio, oss and de nition. Two posttests were administered. e immediate vocabulary posttest
showed that annotation
clusters including a picture were considerably
in uential for both abstract and concrete words. However, the delayed posttest
revealed that all
annotation clusters were equally in uential.
Lowman (2014) considered the eect of podcasts as
well as vodcasts through
iPod on fourth- and sixth- grade
students’ vocabulary
acquisition. Each student was supposed to complete three to six-minute
podcast or
vodcast a day for three
days. e results revealed that the vodcast group
learned more words considerably at
the receptive as well as expressive level.
194
Chun and Plass (1997) explain how second
language reading research
is focused on the cognitive processes
which are involved in
reading and suggest that integrating verbal and
visual information especially through
using multimedia can be eective. ey emphasize that vocabularies
associated with various types of
multimedia improves recall
and retention and learners
learn words better when
words are coded dually
in two modes. erefore,
they propose that studies
should focus on the
eectiveness of speci c sorts of
multimedia for speci c types of learners, for speci c cognitive
processes as well as for speci c learning tasks.
Moreover, Yeh and Wang (2003) examined the use of three types of
vocabulary annotations on vocabulary
learning including text
annotation only, text plus picture, and text plus
picture and sound.
Moreover, they
wanted to consider
whether learners with
speci c perceptual learning styles (auditory, visual-
verbal, visual-
nonverbal, and mixed preferences) bene ted more from a particular type of vocabulary
annotations. Text
plus picture was reported to be the most in uential type of vocabulary
annotation and perceptual learning
styles did not have
considerable impact on
the usefulness of
vocabulary annotations.
In addition, Plass, Chun,
Mayer and Leutner (2003) conducted a study
regarding annotations.
Learners
received no annotations, verbal annotations, visual annotations or both verbal and visual annotations.
Results
showed that recall of word translations was worse for learners with low-verbal
and low-spatial abilities
when
learners received visual annotations. However, there were no signi cant
dierences among students when
they received verbal
annotations. Moreover, learners who received
visual annotations could not comprehend
the text. Furthermore, Amemiya, Hasegawa, Kaneko, Miyakoda and Tsukahara (2007)
conducted a study in
order to consider the eect of iPod in language
learning. e learners rst
selected the foreign words that they
wanted to learn by the use of their computers. en, they downloaded the
corresponding contents into their
iPods. e contents
included the pronunciation of each word with a series of either still or moving
images
related to the foreign words. Moreover, they
compared their study with paper and pencil method.
e results
revealed that their method was 1.5 times better than the paper and pencil
method in memorization of words.
Kim and Gilman (2008)
examined learners’ English vocabulary learning
through the application of multimedia
components in a web- based self-instruction program. e results
indicated that learners’
vocabulary
increased when they
received visual text and
added graphics or visual
text, added spoken text, and added
graphics instruction. ey believe that learning
English vocabulary can be improved by oering
graphics
that illustrate what the
vocabulary means. Rimrott (2010) also considered the usefulness of annotations for vocabulary learning.
Learners received a
translation, an example
sentence and one of ve
annotation clusters
including picture and
gloss, de nition and gloss, picture and audio
presentation, de nition and audio, and
picture, audio, oss and de nition. Two posttests were administered. e immediate vocabulary posttest
showed that annotation
clusters including a picture were considerably
in uential for both abstract and concrete words. However, the delayed posttest
revealed that all
annotation clusters were equally in uential.
Lowman (2014) considered the eect of podcasts as
well as vodcasts through iPod on fourth- and sixth- grade
students’ vocabulary
acquisition. Each student was supposed to complete three to six-minute
podcast or
vodcast a day for three
days. e results revealed that the vodcast group
learned more words
considerably at
the receptive as well as expressive level.
2.2. Vocabulary
2.2.1. Vocabulary knowledge
Vocabulary refers to the knowledge of words as well as the meaning of words.
Vocabulary knowledge is more than just citing the definition of a word. It requires that the reader use the word appropriately based upon a given context. Vocabulary knowledge is important because readers must be flexible in applying appropriate meaning to the word(s) based upon the context in which it is used. A reader with limited understanding of a word in a passage may not be able to grasp the intended meaning.
Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings. As Steven Stahl (2005) puts it, "Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world." Vocabulary knowledge is not something that can ever be fully mastered; it is something that expands and deepens over the course of a lifetime. Instruction in vocabulary involves far more than looking up words in a dictionary and using the words in a sentence.
Vocabulary is acquired incidentally through indirect exposure to words and intentionally through explicit instruction in specific words and word-learning strategies. According to Michael Graves (2000), there are four components of an effective vocabulary program:
1. wide or extensive independent reading to expand word knowledge
2. instruction in specific words to enhance comprehension of texts containing those words
3. instruction in independent word-learning strategies, and
4. word consciousness and word-play activities to motivate and enhance learning
skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) are essential for communication with people who do not share a first language. Moreover, vocabulary knowledge is fundamental to learners’ comprehension and production in the four skills. As Schmitt and Meara (1997) maintain, “there has been a growing realization that total language proficiency consists of much more than just grammatical competence” (p. 18). Hai- peng and Li-jing (2007) believe that “without adequate vocabulary knowledge, a second language learner’s conversational fluency and reading comprehension will meet difficulties” (p.55). They suggest that multimedia environment and vocabulary teaching are impressive techniques to develop learners’ vocabulary as well as English level. Recently, a number of studies have proposed the advantages of language learning using multimedia components such as visual text, audio files, graphics and videos as well as learners’ lexical knowledge, vocabulary gain and retention (Al- Seghayer, 2001; Chun & Plass, 1997; Ehsani & Knodt, 1998; Kim & Gilman, 2008;
Mayer & Moreno, 2002).
2.2.2. Vocabulary retention
Vocabulary retention has been defined as “the ability to recall or remember things after an interval of time. In language teaching, retention of what has been taught (e.g.
grammar rules and vocabulary) may depend on the quality of teaching, the interest of the learners, or the meaningfulness of the materials” (Richards & Schmidt, 2002, p.
457). As it is obvious in the domain of vocabulary learning, the problem is not just in learning second language words; but rather in remembering them. Bahrick (1984) states that how well people remember something depends on how deeply they process it. Therefore, various procedures have been recommended to facilitate vocabulary retention. Concentration on features of the new word and its textual environment is supposed to facilitate retention. Learning in a context depends on repeating, recycling, and re-presenting vocabularies as well as re-noticing them by the learner. It has been suggested (Haastrup, 1989; Modria & Wit-de Boer, 1991; Xialong, 1988, as cited in Hedge, 2000) that retention is related to the condition in which the meaning is inferred and the more analysis involved, the better the retention. There is, yet, another aspect to
That is, retention depends in some way on the amount of mental and emotional energy used in processing a word and readers have developed certain strategies that could assist emotional and mental processing such as meta-cognitive strategies. Critical reading strategies might be another series of strategies that can boost the level of mental and emotional involvement of the learners with the word meaning because readers try to analyze the author’s values and beliefs and evaluate them against their own. Schouten-Van Parreren (1989), concentrating on reading with the primary goal of vocabulary acquisition, argues that a combination of three actions of inferring, verifying, and analyzing the meaning of each new word is very effective for this purpose. She defines guessing as inferencing meaning of an unknown word from the context. The second action, which is the action of verifying the guess, is looking up words in a dictionary. The third action according to Schouten-Van Parreren comprises the recognition of the relationship between new words and already known words in the target language or the mother tongue. In spite of the fact that learners are recommended to learn words through reading texts, retention should not be confused with comprehension. Learning the word’s meaning implies more than comprehending it in a particular text during a reading activity. The meaning of a word has to be retained in the long-term memory. As stated by Haycraft (1978), the words which are related to each other can be easily retained, because using the meaning of words together with the whole meaning of the sentences in which they are embedded is the deepest level of processing and ensures the best retention. To fulfill this aim, effective strategies have been developed to facilitate learning by actively involving the learner in conscious efforts and deep mental processing through reading to remember new words. Mohammed (2009:16) defines vocabulary retention as “the ability to keep the acquired vocabulary and retrieve it after a period of time to use it in different language contexts." Thornbury (2002:23) indicates that learning is remembering, the learner needs not only to learn a lot of words, but to remember them. In the context of word learning, a deeper level of processing means a stronger connection between the word form and its meaning (Craik & Tulving, 1975). For long-term recall, the successful learner not only can analyze and rehearse the new word and its meanings, but also can
meaning. This elaboration probably increases the chances that the word and its meaning will be available for use at a later time (Lawson & Hogben 1996 :104).
2.3. Previous studies
Systems that combine the forgetting curve, spacing effect, and testing effect are referred regarded as "spaced repetition systems." For decades, these systems have been constructed and analyzed in a variety of situations and disciplines. Simple laboratory experiments in which people learn random word lists, nonsense words, or random facts with short recall intervals provide the theoretical basis for SR as well as the richest experimental data to support it. Because these methods were often employed prior to the introduction of PCs and smartphones, manual reminders (by a human) in a lab environment were the only practical way to verify SR's effectiveness.
Nonetheless, the data shows that, in practically every circumstance and setting, SR has shown to be more successful than cramming in hundreds of researches.
Numerous studies have also revealed that SR helps pupils learn difficult and abstract knowledge. In a trial, for instance, a bunch of students taught to take an advanced biology course gained knowledge at a considerably greater rate - and significantly faster - than using conventional approaches. Users also say that adopting this strategy garners more attention than other ways. In another experiment connected to higher education, 216 college students utilized SR to acquire math-solving strategies. The control group crams information about these approaches, whereas the other group has a similar number of methods/practices but employs SR to learn them. The researchers discovered an "extremely substantial" gain to employing spaced repetition instead of cramming. Simply put, pupils who spread out the same number of repeats.
The SR has been shown to be effective in increasing the knowledge of other highly regarded standardized tests for students in the field of law, possibly because it is most directly related to legal education and the practice of law. A study of 1,000 medical students, for example, discovered that those who had SR help in acquiring basic curriculum content were roughly three times more likely to recall a test than those who did not. SR has also been found in studies to be useful in identifying kids who
behind this, has also verified that SR may dramatically increase awareness of professional recommendations among existing practitioners, as well as improve retention and core knowledge of medical students. Working doctors (globally) and students (across institutions) accept and participate in learning games at high rates.
To summarize, research has consistently demonstrated that SR is an effective technique for boosting learning and retention in most areas of education. Studies indicate potential in assisting students to learn more and learn quicker, from recalling terminology to integrating concepts emphasized in SR for extremely complicated topics. Improving platforms demonstrates that SR may become even more successful if new technologies emerge to give consumers more convenient and efficient access.
Understanding cognitive aspects such as the distance effect has been demonstrated to benefit learning and memory studies. While spacing techniques and distance considerations, such as the spacing effect, have had an influence in educational settings, they have also had a positive impact in medical professions, with research Rescue is still ongoing. was carried out in order to learn more about Alzheimer's disease (Anderson, 1990) and to investigate early trauma. Four persons with Alzheimer's disease were educated to recall and carry out a future action intention in research at the University of New Orleans. The gap retrieval approach is used in the training program, which entails active efforts to recall information over a lengthy period of time. After a one-week delay, all participants learned to select a colored coupon among a variety of distractions and present it to the tester. After a week of carrying out the initial objective, another coupon was designated as the new training target. All participants successfully learned three consecutive coupon colors after switching to this new task request. These findings suggest that people with Alzheimer's may learn a future memory task and respond to varied task requirements through interval memory practice (McKitrick, Camp et al. Black, 1992). According to the research's authors, the findings allow for future confirmation of distance retrieval as a memory augmentation approach in Alzheimer's disease patients (McKitrick, Camp, and Black, 1992).
research on the influence of spaced repetition on sustaining the meaning of linked speech. It intended to investigate whether such improvement was replicated in substantive retention of an unfamiliar learning segment, as evidenced by a higher chance of answering multiple-choice questions that assess a clear and accurate grasp of the subject 48 hours after first learning. For example, would students benefit from revisiting their lecture or textbook content when studying for an impending objective test? (Ausubel, and Youssef, 1965). The experimental population in this study comprised 87 senior college students from three sections of an educational psychology course at the University of Illinois. Subjects were enrolled in one of nine middle school teacher education programs. The experiment was carried out independently in each unit as a necessary laboratory activity during regular class hours. The instructional material consists of a 1,400-word section dedicated to pubertal endocrinology. It was chosen because it would be unique to students in teacher education. A 36-item multiple-choice exam with modified dichotomous confidence was used to assess knowledge of the literature. The subjects were allocated to either the experimental or control groups at random. To balance the subjects in each group, each group was stratified by sex. The experimental group was given 25 minutes to read and study the material, whereas the control group was given the same amount of time to read and analyze a completely unrelated section about the history of drug addiction. Two days later, both groups were required to spend 25 minutes studying the paragraph. After 48 hours, each group was given a multiple-choice test. The results reveal that the difference in averages between the experimental and control groups is statistically significant above the 0.001 confidence level for the one-sided test. Based on the therapies, there was a substantial difference between the groups. The experimental group's mean value was 24.25, whereas the control group's was 19.63. In addition to improving learning and meaning retention in these two direct ways, repeating influences these processes in two indirect ways, via changes in the cognitive structure generated by the initial trial. The initial exposure to the content allows learners to understand it when they view it again (Ausubel, and Youssef, 1965).
practice and interleaved evaluation may be applied for all areas. Bahrick et al. (1993) conducted a 9-year longitudinal study in which four individuals researched and reinterpreted 300 pairs of English-foreign terms. Over the course of 14, 28, or 56 days, 13 or 26 reallocation sessions were carried out. Retention is assessed after one, two, three, or five years of training. The greater time range in acquisitions has reduced training slightly, but this has been mitigated by high retention. Thirteen repeats 56 days apart resulted in retention equivalent to 26 sessions 14 days apart. The retention effect was attributable to distance, and both factors aided in word retention independent of difficulty level or consistency of retrieval throughout training (Bahrick et al, 1993). Repetition reading was identified as a known approach for increasing pupils' text recall in a comparable research (Durgunoglu et al, 1993). The researchers looked at factors that influence the efficacy of repeated readings. University students read narrative or narrative materials and answered comprehension questions about the texts in four experiments. The time interval between repeats (batch or spaced repetitions), language of the iterations (similar or different), and pattern of behavior between the two repetitions (interleaved or non-interleaved chunks)) are all adjusted.
These factors have an effect solely on text-based questions requiring detail, not on questions requiring important concepts and conclusions. Spaced repeated readings outperform bulk repeated reads in terms of performance. A multilingual presentation, on the other hand, can avoid the drawbacks of batch repetition (Durgunoglu, et al, 1993). The distance effect has been used to evaluate learning and memory abilities in a variety of ways. In visual identification tests, the distance effect has also been employed. Allyson Cahill and Thomas Toppino (1993) performed a research in which preschool and second grade students examined lists of pictures or their associated labels (words) and then got a recognition test 48 hours later that did/did not feature the same images or the opposite stimulus type. Some items on the study list are repeated, either in huge quantities or randomly (spaced out). The findings showed that when both the learning and testing stimuli were visual, the children's cognitive capacities were higher than when only the learning and/or verbal tests were stimulated. Scattered repetition was likewise preferred by the children over bulk repetition (spacing effect).
the spacing effect. The findings imply that the spacing effect is mediated by a semantic representation and that it is created by relatively automated processes under these conditions (Cahill, and Toppino, 1993).
As revealed in a study on free-throw performance, the spacing effect is beneficial with psychological performance (Predebon and Docker, 1992). The influence of pre-free- kick behaviors on the free-throw behavior of experienced basketball players was investigated in this study, which was carried out at the University of Sydney. Thirty male volunteers were randomly allocated to one of three groups: no habit, conventional physical habit, or visual/physical habit. The performance of the subjects was evaluated across four sessions spread out over a six-week period. Subjects were given a normal shot in advance of their condition between sessions. During the first session, all participants attempted to throw according to their typical pre-shot protocol; however, the subsequent three sessions required them to execute as instructed by the condition. In general, the visual group outperformed the regular group and, as a result, outperformed the occasional group. The final test session performance for the physical/visual processing groups, but not the non-procedural group, was comparable to the participants' regular performance prior to pre-recording, showing that the withdrawal activity was effective. The frequency of experienced players has a long-term negative impact on their free-throw performance (Predebon and Docker, 1992).
Kitao conducted a study on the complete processing theory of the spacing effect at Osaka University of Education (1992). The stated hypothesis was: the complete processing hypothesis of the spacing effect relates poor memory of massed repeated items to a failure to fully process the repeated items. In two tests, this study tested the applicability of this concept to a phrase free recall task. By delivering each phrase with or without an intervening one, the spacing impact was examined. The rehearsal approach was utilized to improve the complete processing of a large number of repeated elements. In both tests, I and ll spaced presentation resulted in much greater recall than massed presentation. Nevertheless, when complete processing was
comparable to spaced clones. These findings imply that poor batch processing contributes to the spacing effect of the free sentence recall test (Kitao, 1992).
A further research at the University of North-Western that looked at the distance effect was on the unmistakable effects of distance on freedom recall (Hall, 1992). The overall number of hits for lists including batch repetitions is the same as for lists having spaced repeats in three experiments without mixed lists. This data, as well as the difference in serial locations between spaced and batch lists in the recall model, imply that the replacement operation (examine the list items first that) is more prevalent during bulk list research. These findings suggest that the replacement mechanism plays a significant role in giving the standard free collection advantage for in-stock products over high-volume listings. For distance testing, mixed and unmixed list designs will be favoured. They also suggest that putative free-withdrawal trials are not instructional on the impacts of distance studies vs batch studies, because free- withdrawal maneuvering methods result in mass separations (Hall, 1992).
The material was repeated in huge numbers, according to an essay by Michael J.
Kahana and Robert L. Greene that was repeated at different times. They ran three tests in the study and found no spacing effect in the free recall of lists including items with a high degree of semantic similarity between the contents. However, the gap effect is observed when these materials are subjected to discriminant or frequency identification tests. The findings confirmed their theory that the spacing effect is caused by numerous separate mechanisms (Kahana and Greene, 1993).
The spacing effect has already been found to be useful in a variety of study possibilities in previous studies. In a number of study circumstances, the benefits of alternating practice and spaced review have been proven to increase and improve learning and memory. These cognitive components have been demonstrated to enhance computers and computer software systems.
The spacing effect is indeed a prominent phenomenon that has been demonstrated several times using a variety of materials. The distance effect has been proven in free recall, tentative recall of paired associations, phrase recall, and textual document
implying that disciplines such as science may be altered via the distance effect.
Furthermore, the consequences of distant education can be quite long-lasting (Anderson, 1990).
Doris Aaronson (1994) claims in a paper on the use of computers in cognitive psychology that computer systems have heavily affected theoretical approaches in cognitive psychology. In fact, the computer has been regarded as a symbolic or conceptual model for human cognitive processing. These days, computers and humans are both regarded as common information processors (Aaronson, 1994). Aaronson continues by claiming that computers not only influence our theoretical thinking but also impact our technique in cognitive research. The use of computers to conduct psychological experiments has aided cognitive research by expanding the number of study models available and the temporal accuracy with which stimuli can be presented and responses measured (Aaronson, 1994).
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 3.1. Research Questions
The study sought to ascertain the impact of the spaced repetition strategy on the vocabulary retention of high school pupils. Its specific goal is in order to seek answers to the following question:
school students’ vocabulary retention?”
3.2. Research Methods
This research was planned to be a pilot study. According to Nunan (1992), empirical research is classified into three types: pre-empirical, semi-empirical, and experimental design. Only one experimental group was treated in the pre-trial research design, and there was no untreated control group. A partial trial is research that gathers data from pre-trials and post-trials including a control group and trial participants. The test results will then be compared to see whether there are any variations in performance that could justify the treatment's impact. Nevertheless, there was no random assignment of individuals to control or experimental groups in the semi-empirical research design. The last category, considered the most successful research design of the three, is the actual experiment, in which volunteers are randomly allocated and dispersed to the experimental and control groups before and after the test to gather data.
Because the experiment was done on a pupil-volunteer basis, the researcher was unable to assign individuals at random in this study. As a result, a semi-empirical design was used to explain and illustrate the efficacy of the spaced repetition strategy on vocabulary retention among high school students at Viet Yen Number 1 High School.
Because the researcher utilized both control and experimental groups, a variety of semi-empirical designs and non-equivalent control group designs are acceptable for this study; nonetheless, there is no randomness in the sampling. Twenty-six students from grade 11A5 consented to participate in the trial, and the treatment was rereading to assist pupils in maintaining their vocabulary.
Post-test Treatment
Pre-test 2 Pre-test 1
Experimental group
Post-test Pre-test 2
Pre-test 1 Control
Group
3.3. Subjects of the Research
The research was undertaken with the participation of 26 high school students of Viet Yen Number 1 High School in the 2nd term of the school year of 2020 – 2021. They were from class 11A5, the experimental group consisted of 13 students and the remaining 13 students belonged to the control group.
3.4. Data Collection Instrument (Tests)
The main goal of this study was to discover an efficient method of spaced repetition to assist students in improving their vocabulary memory. As a result, before and after testing is frequently used as a data-gathering method.
Testing is also the greatest technique to offer objective information about the participants' knowledge and skills. A test, like a survey, is simple to compare and evaluate across responders. As a result, the researcher determined that the tests would be the primary data gathering instrument for this study.
The whole 2-month experimental process will have 5 lessons, each lesson will have 6 sessions for evaluation.Before the experiment, the students will have to go through 2 pre-tests; specifically, a test of the student's vocabulary level after learning the vocabulary 2 months before applying the spaced repetition method and a test randomly having words and phrases the students will learn in the experimental period.
After 2 months, students will do a post-test that randomly contains words from the 5 lessons they have learned in 2 months. Therefore, the whole team will go through a post-test and 2 pre-tests together.
3.5. Procedure of Data Collection
Prior to using the spaced repetition approach, the researcher determined who would be in the control and experimental groups and had the two groups complete two pre-tests.
The researchers utilized the spaced repetition strategy with the experimental group in the second stage. The researcher developed five different lessons for students to study over the course of two months (6 sessions) with the assistance of an instructor.
control groups to assess differences and get information to evaluate the efficiency of spaced repetition strategies on students' vocabulary retention.
The procedure is summarized below:
Lesson Detail Supplementary exercises Expected Outcomes
Week 1:
Pre-test
Words and phrases learned 2 months before the experimental period
o Selected a group of 26 students
o Ask Ss to play the game Quizizz as the Pre-test 1 that have Words and phrases they learned 2 months before
o Teach Ss Lesson 1, then after 1 hour ask them to study it again and finally ask them to play the game Quizizz as the Pre- test 2 that have Words and phrases they learned after 1 hour.
o Divided students into 2 groups: The experimental group and Control group o Implied spaced repetition method on the Experimental group
- Labelled the student work from S1-S26
From Week 2
to Week 7
Because calculating the practice days was extremely complicated, the author needed to make formulas on the website
“Notion”: https://www.notion.so/Push- Dates-Forward-
f7f8488853764faab3a590dcb19b6e3f ( Students in turn learned from lessons 1 to 5 between 4th February to 9th April. The author had set up a formula to calculate the learning time so that the next learning sessions are pushed according to the previous convention: 1 - 3 - 7 - 16 - 30 -
- 78 pre-tests and post-test results of the Experimental group and Control group: 52 pre-test
Here is a picture of that website:
o In each practice day, students needed to review the lesson in the app “Quizlet” on time. (With the same lesson, this
application can create many different types of lessons such as matching,
flashcards, rewriting the meaning, and so on to help students not get bored.)
results (Pre- test 1 and 2), 26 post-test results
- 390 practice test results of the
Experimental group
Week 8:
Post- test
Words and phrases learned 2 months in the whole
experimental period
o Ask Ss play the game Quizizz as the Post-test
(Experimental group and Control group)
- Labelled the student work from S1-S26
3.6. Data analysis
Data from the tests were gathered, summarized, and displayed using a system of charts or tables in Microsoft Excel. Both groups' pre and post-test data were combined. The numbers for both groups were then compared to see if there was any significant difference in the test scores obtained by the two groups, which could indicate the influence of the spaced repetition strategy on improving students' vocabulary retention.
Based on the test results, the researchers compared the information she had with the findings of prior studies to check for any parallels and discrepancies, then reviewed the contemporary research findings and reached a conclusion.
CHAPTER IV
FINDING AND DISCUSSION
presents statistics from student assessments demonstrating how spaced repetition increases vocabulary retention of the Viet Yen Number 1 High school student. The final part describes the test findings.
4.1. Findings of initial levels of understanding and vocabulary retention
4.1.1. Students’ initial levels of understanding after learning 2 months before the experimental period (Pre-test 1)
The number of words and phrases for the pre and post-test was 11.
Based on the Correct words (CR) each student remembered; the individual vocabulary knowledge was calculated using the following formula:
Vocabulary Knowledge = Vocabulary retention = 100: 11 * CR
Students' vocabulary knowledge has been divided into several categories to better clarify their vocabulary retention ability. The grouping criteria and names allocated to each group (No Misunderstandings, Great Understanding, Good Understanding, Moderate Understanding, Some Understanding, and Little to No Understanding), as indicated in the table below, were merely provided by the researcher herself based on the students' pre-test 1 results, with the goal of presenting a clearer picture of the students' vocabulary knowledge rather than any established benchmarking framework.
Table 1. Students’ initial levels of vocabulary knowledge after learning 2 months before the experimental period
Vocabulary knowledge levels
Understandin g
Group (N=13)
Control Experimental
No Misunderstanding = 100% 0 0
Great Understanding < 100% 0 0
Good Understanding ≤ 85% 0 0
Moderate Understanding ≤ 70% 1 2
Some Understanding ≤ 55% 7 4
Little to No Understanding ≤ 30% 4 7
As can be seen from the table, before Spaced repetition method was applied, in both groups, there are no students considered no misunderstandings learners who could understand 100% vocabulary they have learned. In both groups, all students fell to
be more specific, the number of students who understand the vocabulary is more than 70% is very small, with only 1 to 2 people. The figures for some understanding and little to no understanding students of the control group were 7 and 4, respectively while the same-level students of the opponent witnessed the opposite trend. This proves that there are more students having more knowledge in the control group than in the experimental group.
4.1.2. Students’ initial vocabulary retention after learning 2 months before the experimental period (Pre-test 1)
The table below contains data on students' vocabulary retention prior to treatment implementation.
Table 2. Students’ initial Vocabulary retention after learning 2 months before the experimental period
Control group Experimental group
Student code Correct words
Vocabulary Retention
(%)
Student code Correct words
Vocabulary Retention
(%)
S1 7 64 S14 8 73
S2 6 55 S15 7 64
S3 6 55 S16 6 55
S4 5 45 S17 5 45
S5 4 36 S18 4 36
S6 5 45 S19 6 55
S7 5 45 S20 2 18
S8 4 36 S21 3 27
S9 3 27 S22 5 45
S10 6 55 S23 2 18
S11 2 18 S24 1 9
S12 1 9 S25 2 18
S13 2 18 S26 3 27
Average 56 39% Average 54 38%
starting average vocabulary retention. Whereas the control group could recall around 39 % of the time, the experimental group could only remember 38 %, which was one percent less than the other group. The comparability of the test findings suggested that before the repeated reading approach was used to teach, the two groups' vocabulary retention was the same.
The following bar chart visualized students’ initial vocabulary retention after learning 2 months before the experimental period based on the data collected.
10 30 50 70 90
39 38
Students' initial vocabulary retention after learning 2 months before the experimental period (%)
Control group Experimental group
Figure 4. Students’ initial vocabulary retention after learning 2 months before the experimental period
4.1.3. Students’ vocabulary retention after learning 1 hour (Pre-test 2) The number of words and phrases in the input session for the pre was 24.
Based on the Correct words (CR) each student remembered; the individual vocabulary knowledge was calculated using the following formula:
Vocabulary Knowledge = Vocabulary retention = 100: 24 * CR
The data shown in the chart above revealed that students in both control and experimental groups achieved a similar rate of vocabulary retention. While the statistic for the control group was 41 percent, a comparable proportion (40 percent) was provided for the other group. It is noticeable that that was just a negligible change.
