The FAA requires that on the Private Pilot practical (flight) test you demonstrate the ability to recover from an emergency situation such as accidentally flying into clouds or fog. This means that you must be able to get out of such a situation through use of the flight instruments.
Tests have shown that students got better grades on the flight test when this training started early, that is, when flight with reference to instruments was inte- grated with the pre- and postsolo maneuvers. The FAA recommends that this integrated method be used in training all student pilots.
As in all of your flight training, the steps must be taken logically. When you are able to do the Four Fun- damentals and feel at ease in the airplane, the instruc- tor will have you go through these same maneuvers, directing attention to the instrument indications during the process of each. Later, you will use an extended visor cap, or “hood” that will restrict your vision to the instrument panel. At this point, however, it will be bet- ter to see the plane’s attitude as well as the instruments so that you will be able to tie in the plane’s actions with the instrument indications (and vice versa). In order to fly without outside visual references, you must be able to “see” what the plane is doing through the instruments.
Figures 9-15 through 9-20 show the Four Funda- mentals (plus climbing and descending turns) as seen from the cockpit and by the instrument indications. The airplane is heading north at 4,000′ MSL at the start of the maneuver.
It will likely be at this stage that you will first note the idiosyncrasies of the magnetic compass. You will see for yourself that in actual flight the compass is affected by steep banks, attitude changes, and accelera- tion or deceleration of the airplane. In many cases the compass may initially show a change of direction of up to 30° as soon as the plane is banked for a turn; in some cases it may show a turn in the opposite direction at first. In any event, the various actions of the compass for each maneuver cannot be shown here; in Chapter 15 more information will be given about it. The head- ing indicator gives a true indication of the amount of turn, but the compass is accurate only when the plane is flying straight and level in balanced, unaccelerated flight.
During these maneuvers your attention will be on the instrument panel a large part of the time and the instructor will maintain a close watch for other airplanes.
14 CFR §61.109 (Private Pilot) requires that you have a minimum of 3 hours of flight training in a sin- gle-engine airplane on the control and maneuvering of the airplane solely by reference to instruments (see Chapter 15). The instructor will require that you be able to safely control the airplane by use of the instru- ments before you go on a solo cross-country. Precision instrument flight will not be required, but you will be expected to maintain control of the airplane by refer- ence to instruments.
T-Tail Airplanes
Some airplanes have T-tails (the horizontal tail surfaces are on top of the fin and rudder). The horizontal tail is out of the slipstream (Figure 9-21), and changes in power don’t cause the pitch changes discussed earlier in the chapter (Figures 9-9 and 9-10), or at least such changes are smaller. You might watch for the differ- ences if you go from one type to the other (T-tail or standard) during your flying career.
Figure 9-21. The T-tail is usually out of the slipstream so that the pitch change with power is decreased.
9-12 Part Two / Presolo
Figure 9-16. Normal straight climb. The airspeed is steady at climb speed. The attitude indicator shows that the attitude is nose-up, wings-level. The heading indicator shows a constant heading; the turn coordinator indicates balanced straight flight. The altitude is increasing as shown by the altimeter and vertical speed indicator.
Figure 9-17. Climbing turn, standard-rate. The airspeed is steady at climb speed. The attitude indicator shows 11° bank, climb attitude.
The heading indicator shows a left turn. The turn coordinator shows a standard-rate balanced turn. Altitude is increasing as indicated by the altimeter and vertical speed indicator. The climb rate is lower than the straight climb due to the bank angle.
Figure 9-15. A balanced constant-altitude turn (standard- rate). The airspeed is slightly less than cruise because of bank (and back pressure). The heading indicator shows a left turn, and the turn coordinator shows a balanced standard-rate turn. Altitude is constant.
Chapter 9 / The Four Fundamentals 9-13
Figure 9-19. Balanced, standard-rate, gliding turn. The airspeed is steady at glide speed. The attitude indicator shows a slight nose-low, 10° bank. The heading indicator shows a right turn. The turn coordinator indicates a
balanced, standard-rate right turn. The altitude is decreasing as shown by the altimeter and vertical speed indicator.
Figure 9-20. Straight and level flight. Airspeed steady at expected cruise value. Attitude indicator shows nose- and wings-level flight. Heading indicator shows a constant heading. Turn coordinator, straight and balanced flight.
Altitude constant as shown by altimeter and vertical speed indicator.
Figure 9-18. Normal power-off glide (straight descent). The airspeed is steady at the proper glide speed. The attitude indicator shows a slight nose-low, wings-level attitude.
The heading indicator shows a constant heading; the turn coordinator indicates straight balanced flight. The altitude is decreasing as indicated by the altimeter and vertical speed indicator.
9-14
10-1 Elementary precision maneuvers include steep turns
and wind drift correction.