Although a weight concern model of eating and restraint theory have generated a wealth of research and provide an insight into overeating behaviour, there are several problems with this theory:
I Central to the boundary model is the traditional dualistic division between mind and body. The concept of separate biological and psychological boundaries suggests that the physical and psychological are separate entities which interact.
I Restraint theory relies on a belief in the association between food restriction and overeating. However, although dieters, bulimics and bingeing anorexics report episodes of overeating, restricting anorexics cannot be accounted for by restraint theory. If attempting not to eat results in overeating how do anorexics manage to starve themselves?
I If attempting not to eat something results in eating it, how do vegetarians manage never to eat meat?
T O C O N C L U D E
This chapter has explored three core approaches which have been used to understand eating behaviour. Developmental models emphasize the importance of learning by association and reward, cognitive models emphasize the role of beliefs and attitudes and weight concern research highlights the impact of body dissatisfaction and dieting on food intake.
? Q U E S T I O N S
1 How might parents influence their children’s eating behaviour?
2 What are the problems with the developmental and cognitive models of eating behaviour?
3 Dieting causes overeating. Discuss.
4 What are the implications of restraint theory for obesity treatment?
F O R D I S C U S S I O N
Think of someone you know who has successfully changed their eating behaviour (e.g. become a vegetarian, eaten less, cut out chocolate). What factors contributed towards their success?
F U RT H E R R E A D I N G
➧ Ogden, J. (2003). The psychology of eating. From healthy to disordered behaviour. Blackwell: Oxford.
This book provides a detailed map of research relating to eating behaviour, obesity and eating disorders and addresses questions such as ‘Why do so many people not eat a healthy diet?’, ‘Why do women feel unhappy with their body shape?’, ‘What are the causes of obesity?’, ‘Why do people develop eating disorders?’. It is written in a similar style to this textbook.
➧ Szmukler, G., Dare, C. and Treasure, J. (eds) (1995) Handbook of eating dis- orders: Theory research and treatment. London. Wiley.
Eating disorders are not usually covered within health psychology. For those interested, this book provides a detailed account of current theory and research.
7
Exercise
C H A P T E R O V E R V I E W
Over the past few decades, there has been an increasing interest in the role of exercise in promoting health. This chapter examines the development of the contemporary interest in exercise and describes definitions of exercise and fitness. The chapter then examines the physical and
psychological benefits of exercise, describes programmes designed to increase exercise uptake and evaluates social/
political and individual predictors of exercise behaviour.
This chapter covers:
➧ What is exercise?
➧ Why exercise?
➧ What factors predict exercise?
➧ Exercise relapse
D E V E L O P I N G T H E C O N T E M P O R A RY C O N C E R N W I T H E X E R C I S E B E H AV I O U R
Until the 1960s exercise was done by the young and talented and the emphasis was on excellence. The Olympics, Wimbledon tennis and football leagues were for those individuals who were the best at their game and who strove to win. At this time, the focus was on high levels of physical fitness for the élite. However, at the beginning of the 1960s there was a shift in perspective. The ‘Sport for All’ initiative developed by the Council of Europe, the creation of a Minister for Sport and the launching of the Sports Council suggested a shift towards exercise for everyone. Local councils were encouraged to build swimming pools, sports centres and golf courses. However, although these initiatives included everyone, the emphasis was still on high levels of fitness and the recommended levels of exercise were intensive. The ‘no pain no gain’ philosophy abounded. More recently, however, there has been an additional shift. Exercise is no longer for the élite, nor does it have to be at intensive, and often impossible levels.
Government initiatives such as ‘Look after yourself’, ‘Feeling Great’ and ‘Fun Runs’
encourage everyone to be involved at a manageable level. In addition, the emphasis is no longer on fitness, but on both physical and psychological health. Contemporary messages about exercise promote moderate exercise for everyone to improve general (physical and psychological) well-being. In addition, there is also an increasing recognition that exercise that can be included into a person’s daily life may be the way to create maximum health benefits. The most sedentary members of the population are more likely to make and sustain smaller changes in lifestyle such as walking, cycling and stair use rather than the more dramatic changes required by the uptake of rigorous exercise programmes. This shifting perspective is illustrated by contemporary research on the benefits of exercise.
W H AT I S E X E R C I S E ?
Aspects of exercise have been defined in different ways according to intention, outcome and location.
1 Intention. Some researchers have differentiated between different types of behaviours in terms of the individual’s intentions. For example, Caspersen et al.
(1985) distinguished between physical activity and exercise. Physical activity has been defined as ‘any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure’. This perspective emphasizes the physical and biological changes that happen both automatically and through intention. Exercise has been defined as ‘planned, structured and repetitive bodily movement done to improve or maintain one or more components of physical fitness’. This perspective emphasizes the physical and biological changes that happen as a result of intentional movements.
2 Outcome. Distinctions have also been made in terms of the outcome of the behaviour. For example, Blair et al. (1992) differentiated between physical exercise
that improves fitness and physical exercise that improves health. This distinction illustrates a shift in emphasis from intensive exercise resulting in cardiovascular fitness to moderate exercise resulting in mild changes in health status. It also illustrates a shift towards using a definition of health that includes both biological and psychological changes.
3 Location. Distinctions have also been made in terms of location. For example, Paffenbarger and Hale (1975) differentiated between occupational activity, which was performed as part of an individual’s daily work, and leisure activity, which was carried out in the individual’s leisure time.
These definitions are not mutually exclusive and illustrate the different ways exercise has been conceptualized.
W H O E X E R C I S E S ?
The healthy people 2000 programmes in the USA show that only 23 per cent of adults engage in light to moderate physical activity five times per week and up to a third remain completely sedentary across all industrialized countries (Allied Dunbar Fitness survey 1992; United States National Center for Health Statistics 1996). The results of a survey, in which men and women were asked about their exercise behaviour, are shown in Figure 7.1. They suggest that the four most common forms of exercise are walking, swimming, snooker/pool/billiards and keep fit/yoga.
W H Y E X E R C I S E ?
Research has examined the possible physical and psychological benefits of exercise.
Fig. 7-1 Participation in sport, 1990 (after General Household Survey 1992)