Perspective regional planning, involving resource develop- ment of all minerals for the nation as a whole and state/
province in particular, is a continuous process. A multidis- ciplinary and multidimensional expert group from federal administrative services, technocrats, economists, statisticians, environmentalists, and human resource authorities collect information about past trends of consumption/supply, import/
export, and strategic importance of the various mineral
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commodities in a country from a global perspective. The trend of demand/supply is projected for future needs with respect to population growth to generate optimum resources for sustainable use of individual minerals (refer to Fig. 1.1).
Activities are identified and responsibilities earmarked to respective organizations/institutions along with allocation of budgeting and funds. Governments continue routine moni- toring, reconciliation, and corrective measures at appropriate stages. The following are key implementing organizations/
agencies.
4.2.1 Bureau of Mines
The prime role of the Bureau of Mines is to create and maintain an up-to-date onshore and offshore mineral database, promote scientific development, encourage sus- tainable conservation, and protect the environment in mineral industries. The Bureau of Mines is responsible for the approval of mining plans and the regulatory inspecting authority is responsible for mining and environment management plans to ensure minimal adverse impact on the environment. The Bureau of Mines publishes a Min- erals Yearbook every year highlighting total mineral- related statistics; this is disseminated free online and in printed form at a cost. The various institutions are the United States Bureau of Mines (USBM), Department of Mines and Petroleum (DMP), Australia, Bureau of Mines, Canada, Bureau of Mines, Chile, and Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM).
USBM was established in 1910 as a primary govern- ment agency with a mission to conduct scientific research to enhance mineral resources, safety, health care, and environmental impact, and disseminate information on mining, processing, extraction, use, and sustainable con- servation of minerals. Since inception USBM was viewed as the nodal point for new and emerging science and technology in the mineral sector, both nationally and internationally. The government closed USBM during 1995e96 and merged certain functions with other interre- lated federal agencies. TheMinerals Yearbookof USBM is a cost-free pioneering effort for the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information about mining and processing of more than 100 mineral commodities across the nation and in more than 185 countries around the world.
DMP, Australia, ensures a stronger focus on the resources sector, maintaining a mining and petroleum reg- ulatory role incorporating the safety and responsibilities of resources. DMP processes and provides an efficient and timely approval of mining title, which is essential for guaranteeing the sustainability of the resources sector and future prosperity of the states.
The Bureau of Mines in Chile is the major support for the national economy. Copper export alone contributes w40% to the government exchequer.
IBM, established in 1948, is a multidisciplinary national organization with headquarters in Nagpur and several regional/district offices. It is responsible for mineral policy planning, conservation, and mining research. IBM is the custodian of total mineral statistics for the government of India. The functions of IBM include promoting conserva- tion of mineral resources by way of inspection of mines, geological studies, scrutiny and approval of mining plans and schemes, conducting environmental audits, evolving technologies for mineral beneficiation, preparation of feasibility reports for mining and beneficiation projects, preparation of mineral maps and the National Mineral Inventory of mineral resources, providing technical con- sultancy services to the mineral industry, maintaining a data bank for mines and minerals, and preparing technical and statistical publications. IBM compiles and publishes a Minerals Yearbookcovering statistics of total exploration, geological reports, mine production, export and import, price trends, and related matters of all minerals. It maintains a database of all reconnaissance permits, prospecting licenses, and mining leases in the country, available at a price. IBM has six technical divisions within its head- quarters at Nagpur supported by a Modern Mineral Pro- cessing Laboratory and Pilot Plant. It has three zonal offices, 12 regional offices and two subregional offices, two regional ore-dressing laboratories, and pilot plants spread across the country.
4.2.2 Geological Survey
The Geological Survey is the national geoscientific and academic institution responsible for specialized multi- thematic mapping of the entire country, to develop basic research in earth science and to target new mineral discoveries that include water and energy resources to meet the demands of growing populations. The other functions are assessment of earth science-related environmental im- pacts and geological hazards like landslide, earthquake, flood, coastal zone instability, and desertification. It creates and updates a geoscientific database, reports, and maps for dissemination to government departments, user agencies, and individuals free or at cost as the case may be. There are several national geological institutions, namely, the United States Geological Survey (USGS), Geological Survey of Australia, Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), National Service of Geology and Mining, Chile, and Geological Survey of India (GSI).
USGS was established in 1879 as a scientific govern- ment agency. USGS headquarters is in Reston, Virginia, with major offices at Lakewood, Colorado (Denver Federal Center), and Menlo Park, California. The primary mission was to study landscapes, topographic mapping, natural resources, earthquakes and volcanic hazards, geomagne- tism programs, and related matters. USGS has prepared
Geological Quadrangle Map, Geophysical Investigations Map, Hydrologic Investigations Atlas, Land Use and Land Cover Map, and Mineral Investigations Resource Map. The organization has four major science disciplines comprising biology, geography, geology, and hydrology. USGS is a fact-finding research organization with no regulatory responsibility.
The Geological Survey of Western Australia (GSWA) is a division within the DMP. Since 1880, the function of GSWA is to collect and synthesize information on a state’s geology, exploration, and mineral/petroleum resources.
GSWA publishes reports, maps, and a state-of-the-art database documenting all information to enable building blocks to design exploration programs. Reports, maps, and geographical information system data on geology, geophysics, geochemistry, geochronology, mineral explo- ration, resources, and reports of exploration companies can be downloaded free of charge from the Western Australia Mineral Exploration report system. Mineral deposit and mine information are available from Mines and mineral deposits. The department is critical of government decision making, particularly on economic and land-use issues.
Every state, region, or province in Australia functions in a way suitable to that state, region, or province.
The Geological Survey of South Australia (GSSA) is an authority within the Department of State Development of the Government of South Australia, and is responsible for surveying and exploration of South Australia’s geological resources. GSSA continues to discover new data, new insights, and new opportunities. GSSA collect, manage and deliver information, and knowledge of South Australia’s geology, particularly for its mineral resources prospectively.
GSC was established in 1842. It is part of the Earth Science Sector of Natural Resources Canada. GSC is the premier agency for geoscientific information and research, with world-class expertise focusing on geoscience surveys, sustainable development of Canada’s resources, environ- mental protection, and technology innovation.
GSI was established in 1851, with central headquarters at Kolkata and six regional offices and six training in- stitutes. The regional offices are located at Kolkata (eastern), Shillong (northeastern), Hyderabad (southern), Lucknow (northern), Jaipur (western), and Nagpur (cen- tral). The Airborne Mineral Surveys&Exploration wing is located at Hyderabad. GSI is a premier institution imparting advanced training in earth science, photogeology, remote sensing, geophysics, and geochemistry, and is a center for geoinformation. GSI prepares and updates geological, geophysical, and geochemical maps, explores and assesses mineral and energy resources both onshore and offshore, develops and maintains national drill core libraries, per- forms research, and promotes the application of new knowledge. It creates and maintains an earth science
database, acts as a national repository of data generated by various organizations, and disseminates to the public domain. It maintains national geological monuments, mu- seums, and geological parks.
The Survey of India (SOI) was established in 1767 with its headquarters at Dehradun, Uttarakhand. The principal responsibilities of SOI are geodetic control (horizontal and vertical), geodetic and geophysical survey, topographical control, surveys, and mapping within India, mapping and production of geographical maps and aeronautical charts, and surveys for developmental projects. The organization prepares toposheets at 1:250,000, 1:50,000, and 1:25,000 scales for the entire country. The survey sheets, which are not of strategic importance (restricted), can be purchased by anybody from the SOI offices located at all state cap- itals. The restricted toposheets can be obtained by special permission of authorized central and state administrative officials and/or the Ministry of Defense.
4.2.3 State/Regional Department of Mines and Geology
The state/regional/provincial Department of Mines and Geology (DMG), located all over the world, is responsible for limited mineral exploration, granting of reconnaissance permits, prospecting licenses, and mining leases with approval/consent of the federal government, and the in- spection and collection of royalties from various mining units.
4.2.4 Exploration Agencies: Public, Private, and Multinationals
The federal Geological Survey and state/regional DMG hold initial exploration maps to identify broad-based min- eral provinces in a country. These maps are available at no/
little cost for a selection of detailed exploration under a prospecting lease. The government/public sectors may continue detailed exploration and the results are available at cost for mining tenements.
Mineral exploration from reconnaissance to mine feasibility is also conducted by private sector companies within a country. These companies may continue process- ing/mining/smelting as a captive mine or sell explored property at any stage to a third party. The private com- panies are Osisko Mining, Argentina, Goldstream Mining NL and IMX Resources Ltd., Australia, Red Back Mining, Canada, Wesizwe Platinum, South Africa, Venturex Resources Ltd. and Vale, Zambia, ACC Ltd., Binani Zinc Ltd., Birla Corporation Ltd., Ferro Alloys Corp. Ltd., Sesa Goa Ltd., Tata Steel Ltd., and Vedanta Resources PLC, India.
The concept of globalization by open market policy gave way to a radical opportunity to multinational limited
companies or multinational companies (MNC) worldwide.
Any MNC registered in the host country, individually or as joint venture partner, is allowed to explore and mine all nonstrategic minerals with 100% foreign direct investment.
The participation of MNC in the mineral sector has far- reaching effects and benefits to the receiving country by way of readily available, specialized, experienced, skilled technocrats and advanced technology. Multinational exploration companies are global players equipped for specific groups of minerals such as iron-ore-aluminum, copper-zinc-lead, platinum-nickel-chromium, gold, dia- mond, oil and gas, and coal-lignite-coalbed methane (CBM). Global MNC include Anglo American PLC (London), Rio Tinto Group (London), Vedanta Resource PLC (London), BHP Billiton Ltd. (Melbourne), CSR Limited (Sydney), Cameco Uranium (Canada), Goldcorp and De Beers (Johannesburg), Exeter Resource Corporation (Canada), Codelco Mining Corporation and Capstone Mining Corporation (Chile).