2 9 8 SUBJECT INDEX
Cultural (continued) judgments, 212 organizations, 197 Danger
in research, 47, 54, 87,136,143,148,151 for researchers, 149,152
Dangers of invisibility, 148-150 Data
analysis of, 3-4, 7,13-14,18,102,165, 184, 238, 246, 250, 260, 263, 266-267 collection of, 1, 5-6,11-15,18-19, 25,
28-30, 33-35, 39,43,111-112,114, 118,120,122-123,127,130,164,183, 212-216, 229-230,234, 236, 239, 276 display of, 35-36
and identifiers, 47, 50-51, 54, 59, 61,195 from interviews, 102-103,109,125, 226,
258, 277
from observations, 1, 239
organization of, 3,12, 33-35,116, 263 protection of, 150-151
reduction of, 35-36
sources of, 203-204, 215, 219-220 storage, retrieval, and analysis, 35-36 Databases, 20. See also Computers Deception (in research), 43, 55-56, 64-65 Declaration of Helsinki, 41, 65
Deductive reasoning, 245-246, 249, 276 Demographic questions, 74, 75, 79, 87 Designing
and planning research, 1,12-13,15, 20-21, 25, 29, 33-34, 38-39,42, 59-60, 62-64, 90, 93,101-103, 125-126,135,137,175 projects, 28-33
and triangulation, 168
Diaries (as data), 7,115,118-120,132,191, 200-201, 206-207, 210, 213-217, 219, 223-228, 239, 247
Disattending, 147-148
Disclosures (by researchers), 59, 68 Discussion (in research reports), 128, 270,
277
Disengaging (from research; getting out), 136,171-173
Disseminating research findings, 19, 36-37,195,269, 280
Dissertations, 38, 65,100,108,131-132,150, 176, 205,265-266,274-275, 287-288 Documents,
analysis of, 189,191,194,197,198, 213
in case studies, 225, 227-229 collecting. See Archival research as data, 46, 49,115,124, 139-194,
199-203
as records, 191,194,199-203, 220 Double-barreled questions, 78, 79 Dramaturgical interview, 66-68, 75-76, 85,
95,103
Dramaturgy, 11, 66-107 Eavesdropping, 155,157 Echoing, 97-98
Edited autobiographies, 200-201
Education (research in), 33,45, 74,131,135, 179,198, 207, 211,222, 225, 237, 244 Electronic
articles, 274
documentary sources, 279 journals, 283
records, 194
Elites, 137,175-176,177 Elite settings, 137 E-mail messages, 194 Empathy, 9-10, 66,129,140
Empirical research, 17-18, 90,106,144, 179, 281
Encoded messages, 91 Erosion
as data, 203-204 of memory, 160, 201 measures, 203-204 Essential questions, 75 Ethical
breaches, 40, 44, 52, 55
codes and standards, 20, 28 40-42, 51-52 concerns, 4,11, 20, 39-62, 64,138-139,
195
problems, 44 43, 63 responsibility, 61 Ethicists, 52
Ethics (in historical perspective), 40-44 Ethnicity, 86
Ethnograph, 260, 262-263, 267 Ethnographic
accounts, 97,164
dangers during research, 151-153 data, 164-165,183
narrative accounts, 164-165
research, 12, 50,135,137-138,147,150- 153,158,163-164,177,183, 277 strategies, 50,173
Ethnographies, 4,135,147,197,276,285
SUBJECT INDEX 2 9 9 Ethnography/Ethnographers, 4,49,55,
58,60,66-67,110 133-135,138,140-141, 143-164,171-176,183,188-189,192, 198-199,207-208,266,283
Ethnomethodological experimentation, 3, 6 Ethnonursing, 133,135, 269
Evasion tactics, 84 Exampling, 257-258
Expedited review, 48. See also Institutional review boards (IRBs)
Experimental groups, 60-61,126 Experimentation, 44
Extended focus groups, 123-125 External criticism, 216-218. See also
Historiography Extra questions, 75-76
Face-to-face interaction, 66, 67, 82, 83 Face-to-face interviews, 81, 83,112,
114-115,121
Facial grimaces, 90,159,196
Facilitators, 124,187. See also Focus groups Federal Certificate of Confidentiality, 59,
149-150 Feminists, 140-141
Field notes, 11, 33-34,40, 47, 59,124,151, 155,158-165,170,173-174,183, 226, 238-240, 261
Field research, 6,11, 55, 63, 65, 67, 70, 80, 133-135,142-143,146-147,163, 173-174,177,183, 230. See also Ethnography/Ethnographers Field researchers, 49
Fieldwork, 49,50, 83, 85,143-144,152,183 Filing systems (for data), 103-104 Findings, 5,12,17-19, 24,29,105,142,182,
190, 204, 215, 230-232, 241-243, 245, 248-250, 253, 256, 261, 263, 270, 273-274, 276, 277, 280-281, 287 Focus group interviewing, 114-115,117-118
advantages and disadvantages of, 114-120
Focus groups, 4,11,111-132,183, 264 Footnotes (in research reports), 216-218 Forgeries, 216-218
Framing research problems. See Research questions
Fraud (in research), 56, 216-217, 224, 247 Gaining entry ("getting in"), 55, 67,136,
139, 144-147,161 Gambling, 48,143,166,176
Gangs, 149, 235
Garbage (as data), 76-77, 205, 281, 286 Gatekeepers, 17,145,157,168,174 Generalizability, 32, 232
Gestures, 8, 90, 92,107,156,196 Getting in, 66, 67-68,136-139 Getting out, 136,171-173 Gofer, 260
Grounded theory, 4, 245-250, 254, 256 Group interviews, 111, 114,117,124,127,
129
Guides (in research), 121-122,138,144- 146,155-157,168
Guilty knowledge, 55,150 Handwriting experts, 218. See also
Documents Hawthorne effect, 147 Headstones, 193-194
Hierarchy of informational sources, 274 Historical analysis, 3, 214, 219
Historical research, 210-216, 219, 222-223 Historiographic analysis, 214
Historiography / Historiographer, 3-4, 12-13, 210-211, 213-215,217,263 life histories and, 213-214
Hoaxes, 216-218 Homogeneity, 233
Homosexuals (as research subjects), 43 Human subjects, 4,11, 28,40-41,44-46,49,
52-53, 64-65,137-138,189,190,203, 205,211,219
HyperCard, 260 HyperQual2, 262
Hypotheses, 6,10,18, 31, 61, 80,164,197, 203,215, 221, 231, 241, 246-247, 252, 255-257
Ideas
and concepts, 15-16,134, 247 in conversations, 84,112,114,116 and interviews, 69, 72,116-117,119,186 in the research process, 5-16, 34,190,
211, 252 and theory, 15-19 Implied consent, 56-57
In-depth interviews, 11, 35, 57,146, 225 Index cards, 21-25, 28, 30,158
Indexes (in literature reviews), 19-21, 271 Indexing (for data retrieval), 103,105, 242,
260-261
Indigenous researchers, 135,145,147
3 0 0 SUBJECT INDEX Induction
and content analysis, 164
and reasoning, 164, 245, 246,248-249, 255-256, 276
Informal interviews and interviewing, 62, 115-116,135
Informants, 33,55, 58, 76,138,144-146, 148,151,155,158,168,175, 201 Informed consent, 11, 20,45-47, 50-51,
56-57,121
Institutional review boards (IRBs), 11, 45-52,135
Internal criticism, 218-219 Internet
as an informational source, 20-21,185, 192, 220-222, 263-264, 274,283 sites for research, 264
Interpretive interactionism, 115 Interrogative hypothesis testing, 256 Interviewer (general), 11, 66-68, 75-78,
81-95,102,106-107, 111, 115,117,121, 124-125,147
abilities of, 67, 86-87, 94 as actor, 92
as choreographer, 92 as director, 92 as laborer, 66
rapport, 67, 70, 75, 79, 83, 86-87, 94,99, 121,123
and reactivity, 67, 85-86
repertoires of, 66, 90, 93-94, 96-97,100 role performance by, 68
roles of, 67, 85-86,106 as self-conscious performer, 89 subjective disclosures by, 68,141-142 Interviews / Interviewing
conducting, 4, 6,11, 49, 51, 57, 84-85 as conscious performance, 67-68, 89,
91-97,102-103,147
consent and, 56-57, 86, 95. See also Implied consent; Informed consent data from, 103,125, 259, 277
dramaturgical, 85-93
and ethnographic research, 6,13 and focus groups, 111-120,123-132, 264 and participation, 29-30, 33, 51, 57 schedule for, 72-77
and techniques, 11, 32 ten commandments of, 99-100 and transcriptions, 34 types of, 68-72,139 Introductions (in reports), 273
Intrusive research, 189,199 Intuition, 66, 89-92 Invasion of privacy, 43
Invisibility, as researcher, 147-151 IRBs. See Institutional review boards Jargon, 185, 201, 269
Jewish Historical Society, 220-221 Jewish people (research on), 41, 75, 93,
108,141,145,174, 221, 233, 247-248, 253, 265, 287
Jokes, 100,196, 228
Journals (professional), 20, 37,194-195, 201, 214-215, 219, 227-229, 254, 274, 279-283
Judgmental sampling, 32 Key linkage, 250, 254
Knowing your audience, 100-101 Ku Klux Klan, 29,194
Kwalitan, 262
Labels/Labeling, 149,161, 204, 236,240, 250, 254
Latent content, 242-243. See also Content analysis
Letters (as data), 6-7,115, 200,202,207, 210, 215, 219, 227-228, 248, 268-269, 274
Letting people talk (in interviews), 97-98 Level of language, 74,121,127
Library research, 21
Life histories, 12, 200,213-214, 223, 225 Likert-like scale, 168
Liquor sales (as unobtrusive data), 189-190 Listening, 6,11,17, 79, 89, 92, 98,106-107,
153,155, 242, 269, 280
Literature reviews, 11,15,19, 21, 24, 34, 215-216, 270-271, 273-275 Long interviews, 33, 80-82 Macroethnography, 135-136 Magazines, 191,193,198, 206
Manifest content, 202, 242-243, 247-248.
See also Content analysis Manuscript submissions, 281-283 Mapping, 168,170
Marginality, 94
Marijuana (as research subject), 17, 73, 79, 93, 98,107,142, 271
Mario Brajuha, case of, 150-151 Mathematics, 168
SUBJECT INDEX 3 0 1 Measurement, 26, 32,187, 205, 219, 286
Memoirs, 191, 200,228 Memory decay, 160, 201 Memory-triggering, 160 Metaphors, 3,165,171
Methodology/Methodological strategies, 3,11,13, 4^49, 270, 275-277 Microethnography, 135-136,197 Misidentification, 148-149 Misrepresentation, 148
Moderator, 111, 116-117,120-123,125, 127-131. See also Focus groups Multiple operationalism, 281 Multivariate analysis, 281 Narratives, 210,215, 219, 241, 277
analysis of, 241, 277 in ethnographic accounts, 11
National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, 197, 207 National Commission for the Protection of
Human Subjects, 46
National Commission on Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 45
National Research Act, 45-46 Native Americans, 29, 35,144,196 Nazis, 213
Negative case testing, 256 Networks, 146,157,167, 233, 262 Newspapers (as data or information
sources), 191,194-195,198, 206, 214, 274
Nominal data, 6, 35
Nonprobability samples, 31-33 Nonreactive techniques, 189,191, 287 Nonverbal communication and cues, 82,
85, 90-91, 99,107
Normative behavior, 25,115,117,132 Norms, 9, 84-85, 94,157
Notes. See Field notes
Novice interviewers, 90, 96, 99,106 NUD.IST, 262
Nuremberg Code, 41
Nursing (research on), 11,16, 20-26, 37, 56, 61, 82,135,179,188, 211, 223-224, 244, 266, 268-269, 280-283,288 Obituaries (as data), 46, 60-62, 214, 222 Objectivity, 11-12, 37, 56, 108,123,134,
185, 231-232, 238, 240-242, 251, 254, 265, 276, 287
Observational data, 182, 239 studies, 51, 219, 227
techniques of, 153-165,180,182 Occupational roles, 85, 88 Online journals, 279
Open coding, 103,164, 250-253, 255 Open-ended questions, 73,120, 248, 259 Operationalization, 22-23, 32, 248, 249
and conceptualization, 25-28
Oral histories, 12,199-200, 214, 219-221, 225
Organizations, case studies of, 233 Overt research, 11,47,54-55,138-139 Paint deposits (as unobtrusive data), 205 Participant observation, 3-4, 6, 30, 65,
117-118,135,137,150, 225 Passive consent, 20, 50-51
Patterns (in data), 15, 35-36, 71,103,105, 114,164-167,174,200, 206, 219, 239- 240, 249-250, 254,257-258, 265, 268, 277
Peer nomination, 167-168
Performances (by interviewers), 93, 97, 99, 103
Personal accounts, 277 biography, 141
documents, 219, 227-228 Phenomenological research, 27 Photographs (as data), 7, 33, 91, 99,192,
198-199, 214, 217, 239-241 Physical traces, 203-205
Political figures (research on), 222, 248 Pornography and Television Violence
Commissions, 244 Positivism, 7,10, 211, 242
Primary data, 215-217,219-220. See also Historiography
Primary sources, 216. See also Historiography
Prison inmates (research on), 9, 54, 81,112, 126
Privacy, 11, 28, 39,44-45, 54, 57, 137-138, 151,160. See also Ethics
Privacy Acts of 1974, 45 Probability sampling, 30-33, 47 Probes, 70-72, 75-76, 98,107,122 Propaganda, 202, 207, 218, 222, 242 Protection of human subjects, 47-48, 64 Proximity, 90,142,157,171, 220, 234-235
3 0 2 SUBJECT INDEX Pseudonyms, 47, 58,104,159
Psychology/ Psychologists, 53, 63,112, 114,131,179,186, 225, 244
Publishing/Publications, 37,191,195, 260, 280-283
Purposive sampling, 32 Qualitative
analysis, 1, 36,102-103,163,177, 240-242, 260-264
and computers, 259-263 data, 34-35,163, 238, 260, 264 vs. quantitative, 281, 286-287
research, 1-4, 6-7,12-13, 27, 32, 34-35, 38-10, 4 7 ^ 8 , 51, 58, 65, 82,102, 108-110,113-114,127,131-132, 174-177,188, 207-209, 220, 223, 231, 236-238, 252, 260, 262-264, 266, 276-277, 279, 281, 283-284,287 researchers, 12,17, 47,130, 238, 260-264,
266
strategies, 10,189, 287 studies, 51,142, 282-283 techniques, 6-7,183, 286
telephone interviews, 80, 82-83, 94-95 QUALPRO, 262
Quantitative data, 46,103
and data-gathering strategies, 46, 73 methodologies, 46
research, 1-3,10-13, 26, 34, 47-18, 51, 80,102,140,165, 231, 241-242, 262-263, 276, 281-282, 284, 286-287 Quasi-experimental design, 126
Quasi-random sample, 31
Questionnaires, 47, 50, 60, 72-73,125,164, 171, 214, 258-259, 286
Questions
formulation of, 78,180,181-182 order (in interview construction), 74, 79 order, content, and style, 74-77 probing, 76
wording of, 76-77 Quota samples, 33 Random selection, 96
Rapport, 67, 70, 75, 79, 83-84, 86-87, 94, 99,121,123,125,138,144,156,176 Reactivity, 11, 67, 85-87,137-138,148,189 Recalling data, 159-163
Recruiting, 194
References (in research reports), 19-21, 215, 242, 258, 270, 275, 278-280 Reflexivity, 108,139,175, 223, 288 Reliability, 36, 75, 93, 216, 219, 241, 276 Report findings, 18,139
Representativeness, 10 Research
-after theory, 18 -before theory, 17-18
involving humans, 4, 40. See also Institutional review boards (IRBs) questions, 24-25, 27-28, 32, 72, 80,127, 181,195, 203, 219, 221, 230, 259, 270 strategies, 6,189, 213, 259
unobtrusive measures in, 189-205 Researchers
and bias, 16
and ethical behavior, 39—15 and IRBs, 45,46,49
and issues of safety (danger), 47, 51-54, 136,143,149,151-153
as novices, 11-12, 24, 35
and self-disclosures, 200-201, 276 and self-reflection, 202, 276
and study focus, 18, 31-32, 35, 37-38, 43 Research papers, writing, 268-286 Retrieval of data, 35,159,161, 260-261 Risk of harm (to human subjects), 48, 58.
See also Ethics
Risks from participation (in research), 47-18
Role
of the interviewer, 85 -playing, 96-97,107,122 projection, 95
reversal, 106 -taking, 10, 86-93
Running records, 12,192,196, 200 Safeguards
on data, 51, 54, 58, 257 for subject safety, 28 Sample size, 10
Sampling, 30, 32,126-127,130 strategies, 30-33, 36,126-127 Scales, 168
Scheduled questions, 71
Scientific research, 2-3,10,13, 39-40, 45-46, 63, 66,108-109,114,129,132, 134,140,164,193, 210, 212, 216, 221, 232, 249, 254, 282
SUBJECT INDEX 3 0 3 Screening question, 253-254
Scripted interviews, 66, 88, 92-93
Secondary sources, 214. See Historiography Securing the data, 56
Self-conscious social performance, 92 Semantics. See Content analysis Semistandardized (semistructured)
interviews, 68-70, 83,122 Sequencing
of events in field notes, 159 of interview questions, 74, 79-80 Settings
in case studies, 233, 235
in ethnographic research, 13,135-137, 144-147,150-156,160
in focus groups, 117-118,129 in interviewing, 85, 88,112 in research, 7, 55,144-145,158,171 Short-answer sheet, 104-105 Simple random samples, 31 Situational danger, 152 Snowballing, 146,153,154,156 Snowball sampling, 33,47,146,156 Social audiences, 68
Social interpretations, 90-93,107 Socialization, 20, 94,175
Social roles, 7, 9,15,18, 67, 68,117,119, 147,166, 202
Social science research, 11,13,16,18-19, 22, 34, 36-37, 39, 54-55, 67,112-114, 126-127,129-130,178, 278, 285-287 Sociodrama, 3
Sociograms, 165-168
Sociology, 10, 64-65,107-108,119,150, 190, 208, 226, 236, 244
Sociometric, mapping 167-168,170-171, 174-175
Sociometry, 3-4,11,167
Software (for qualitative research), 177, 259-262, 264, 267, 286
Solicited documents, 200 Sources of data, 214-215, 239 Special classes, 250
Stakeholders (in action research), 181-186, 240
Standardized interviews, 3, 68-70,105, 121,165,191
Statement of confidentiality, 60 Statistical data, 53,193 Stratification, 194
Stratified random sampling, 31
Street ethnography, 133 Subculture, 78, 205
Subjective disclosures (by researchers), 141-142
Subjective understandings (by researchers), 7
Subjectivity, 90,110,176, 221, 228 Subjects (in research), 44, 63-65,122,172,
253, 275
Subthemes. See Themes; Content analysis Surveys, 31, 47, 58, 77, 81,107
questionnaires for, 47, 57, 111, 117 and research, 225, 232
Symbolic action, 68
Symbolic interaction, 7-9,11, 67 Symbolic interactionists, 8-9, 67, 239 Symbolism, 11, 242, 243
Synergy, 112,119 Syphilis, 41-12, 64 Systematic analysis, 164 Systematic random sampling, 31 Tacit knowledge, 90
Tally sheets, 36,183, 242
Taverns (as research sites), 48,166 Tearoom Trade, 43,175
Telephones
and interviews, 80, 82-83, 94-95 and research, 80, 82, 84, 88-89, 91,
94-95, 253-254
and screening questions, 253-254 Television
as data, 191-192, 217
violence on, 60, 62,197-198, 244 Textbase managers, 261-262 Text retrievers, 261
Textual analysis, 3, 34-35,134-135, 163-164,183
Themes, 35-36,103-104,164,183, 240, 242-243, 245-247, 260, 265 Theoretical classes, 250
Theory, 3-4, 6, 8, 9,15-18, 28, 31, 64,131, 165-166,175,177,187,197-198, 229-231, 245-246, 249, 252, 254-256, 258, 261-262, 268, 274
-before-research, 17-18 and concepts, 15-16 ideas and, 16-19
Throw-away questions, 75-76 Tombstones (as data), 191,194 Topical autobiographies, 200-201