Since an individual’s decision-making process is influenced by the knowledge he has acquired over the years, the brain often makes decisions the individual might not be fully aware of. As discussed in chapter three, it can be helpful to better understand how thinking works and how you can apply different types of thinking when solving problems. Having a creative thinking or problem- solving process can lead to even better problem-solving skills. Several exercises, like the Nine Dots, demonstrate that people often get stuck in the way they think because they are unable to shift their thinking mode. For example, when approaching the Nine Dots exercise, your brain processes the information by subconsciously making assumptions. Therefore, it is helpful to learn how you can think about the ways in which you process information and be aware of the kind of thinking you are applying at any given time.
Psychologists call this process metacognition. This term, coined by John Flavell, professor of developmental psychology at Stanford University, refers to how people leverage their understanding of how they think and what goes on in their brains when they are trying to achieve a certain cognitive goal.16 Flavell worked with young children ranging in age from preschool to
elementary and studied how they handled cognitive tasks based on their ability to gauge their memorization skills. He discovered that the older children were better able to understand their capacity to perform a memory task. With age, the recognition of our cognitive abilities improves. Being able to identify your own mental abilities is important, especially during a problem-solving or
creative thinking process. Understanding how you think when considering a specific topic can help you shift gears and guide your thinking in different directions.
During the last six decades, several creativity researchers have developed different models of thinking processes, and these models help us to see the thinking process as a set of different stages. Some of those processes aid us in gaining a better understanding of how we think and when to apply the
different kinds of thinking, such as divergent and convergent thinking when solving problems or generating new ideas for campaigns, products or services.
In any creative problem solving process, divergent thinking should be applied during the Generation Phase in order to come up with as many ideas as
possible. During this phase it is important to defer judgment, strive for
quantity and freewheel, which means that you should capture and record every solution that comes to mind, no matter how crazy or out there it may seem.
Finally, you should seek combinations, building on your ideas or other people’s ideas in order to go into new, unexplored directions. Divergent thinking allows us to push ourselves to come up with as many different ideas and concepts as possible without expecting those ideas to relate to one
another. This type of thinking is used to consciously increase the total number of possible solutions without being concerned about whether or not these solutions will ultimately solve the problem.
Once a predetermined number of ideas has been generated or an allotted amount of time for generating ideas has passed, convergent thinking is then applied as the next step in the creative problem-solving process. During the convergent thinking phase, all ideas are evaluated and measured against the initial problem. The separation between divergent and convergent thinking forces the mind to take a nonjudgmental tack.
In the 1980s, advertising executive Alex Osborn and psychologist Sidney Parnes developed the Creative Problem-Solving Process. The Osborn-Parnes
Creative Problem-Solving Process (CPS) provides a widely applicable
framework for solving problems and generating as many solutions as possible.
The CPS encourages thinking that is unusual and varied in nature, then evaluating and streamlining ideas into something worth implementing.
In chapter two, creativity is defined as the production of something original and useful and reflected in the Torrance tests—but there is never one right answer. Creativity requires divergent thinking (generating many unique ideas) and convergent thinking (combining those ideas into the best results). This definition of creativity supports the notion that one divides thinking and actions into several steps when trying to solve a problem.
Graham Wallace, a British political scientist and sociologist who wrote the book The Art of Thought (1926), developed a four-stage model. This creative process uses four steps to apply creative thinking in order to come up with original, worthwhile and applicable ideas. The four steps are preparation, incubation, illumination and verification. By dividing problem solving into several steps, an individual can consciously apply various thinking styles in order to change the outcome of his or her thinking. As demonstrated by the Nine Dots exercise, these steps help us to view information in a way that differs from what our brains normally do by default. Wallace claimed that these steps were experienced in order and did not overlap. However, he believed that the four stages are recursive and that each stage could be revisited. This model continues to influence and inform the development of later models in thinking.
During the preparation phase, the preliminary analysis begins. The general situation is analyzed and we define what we are about to do and the kind of information we are looking for. We also determine what kind of research will be applied in order to find the necessary information. During this first phase, we will look at the problem and connect it to the bigger picture. It is
acceptable to start collecting ideas as they arise during the preparation phase.
But at the same time, it is important to delay the real concepting and ideation thinking.
During the second phase, our mind continues to work on the problem, unconsciously forming trains of associations. We might come up with several ideas and our mind will wander, connecting ideas and looking into different areas, while drawing from past experiences.
During the third phase, we can expect some promising ideas to break through and to move into our consciousness. Ideas emerge, and we compare them to our existing knowledge. We start thinking about which idea might be the most appropriate solution to solve our problem.
During the last phase, which is the verification phase, the ideas we chose as potential solutions are further developed, evaluated and refined.
Since the 1970s, American researcher and Harvard professor Teresa
Amabile has been exploring how creativity works, how the creative place and environmental aspects influences the creative output (see chapter 9 and 10) and how creativity can be increased. In 1983, Amabile provided a model for a creative process that includes four steps and is similar to the Wallace model.
The first step is problem or task identification. This step is arguably the most crucial. I would like to stress the importance of clearly defining the problem before offering any solutions. In my extensive experience, I have often seen problems poorly defined at the outset. In turn, solutions are developed without fully understanding the real problem. It is important to clearly identify the focus of the problem and to question whether the initial problem is truly the real issue at hand. Problems frequently need to be redefined or broken into smaller subsets.
The second step of Amabile’s model is preparation. During the preparation stage, a situation analysis is conducted and as much information as possible is gathered. Thereafter, during the third step, called response generation, as many ideas as possible are generated. Finally, in the fourth step, the response
validation and communication phase, ideas that have been developed are evaluated and analyzed to determine which best solve the problem.
The most important takeaway from this chapter is that a clear problem- solving process or creative process can increase the likelihood of coming up with the best possible solution. As we have learned, creativity is a complex topic. There is not just one way that explains how creativity happens or what happens when creativity is at work. The same is true for the creative process.
Several problem-solving processes and creative processes have been
developed—and new research and knowledge is added to the discipline every year.
In addition to the processes described here, many individuals have
developed their own unique thinking process. As you read this chapter, you may want to think about your own work and any processes that you are applying. In some cases you may have already developed your own personal creative process that works well for you.
Rob Schwartz at TBWA\Chiat\Day believes that “the process of disruption is one of the smartest ways to get great ideas fast, consistently.” A concept like disruption can provide important information during any step of the thinking process. Everyone in the agency knows that disruption is a key
outcome of the agency and that any idea has to be good enough to measure up to this goal. People involved in research will have to look at the marketplace and target audiences in order to understand where norms might exist and where the concept disruption might fit. Understanding human behavior and competitive environments will help us evaluate whether or not an idea has the potential to be disruptive in the first place. Knowing that an idea must be disruptive becomes an evaluation criterion that helps identify the best idea suited to solve the challenge.
The ideation process plays an important role at Cramer Krasselt in Chicago.
Marshall Ross points out that “there is no embarrassment. It’s a bad idea, a
good idea. Pin it up. And the idea there is to share that thinking. That’s one level of show-and-tell. It was literally a daily, hourly, minute-by minute process. And what happens is that people walk around and provide feedback or get inspiration.”
This approach focuses on two main components. First, a key objective is the development of as many ideas as possible. The second is that ideas must be shared and viewed by many people in order to increase the overall quantity and the quality of ideas developed that solve a client’s challenge in new and appropriate ways. Tom Moudry of Martin Williams puts special emphasis on situation analysis and research at the beginning of the process, a stage at which it is important to discover the norms within the industry his clients are competing in. “We have a sequential process that we call creative habits. It starts with just challenging assumptions. In every single category there are conventions and assumptions,” says Moudry.
There are several other creative problem-solving processes available that have been developed by various individuals or teams. Some of those processes were developed as part of creativity research and others come from more
applied fields, such as IDEO’s process of “design thinking.” I personally have worked with the Osborn-Parnes Creative Problem Solving Process for more than twenty years and have participated in many CPS training sessions and leadership programs at the Creative Education Foundation (CEF) at SUNY Buffalo in New York. Based on my personal and professional experience, both the Osborn-Parnes model and the IDEO Design Thinking Process provide two frameworks that are highly applicable in real-world situations. Any of the processes mentioned in this chapter can also be helpful when writing a
research paper, reviewing and working on a case analysis, or developing new marketing solutions, communication plans and products.
The Osborn-Parnes Creative Problem Solving Process (CPS) model consists of six individual steps. The first phase, mess finding, consists of a
clear statement of the deductive objectives that are being developed. Instead of accepting any problem or challenge as initially presented, this phase provides the opportunity to include different perspectives and to determine some key objectives that may help identify the problem or subproblems, and describe the expected outcome at the beginning of the process. Typically, during the mess finding stage, a general research plan, or situation analysis with a big picture perspective, is developed. During this step, it can be helpful to apply some creative thinking techniques—for example, look at the problem through the perspectives of various company stakeholders.
Based on my experience with various agencies, dedicating a certain amount of time to this phase can make a huge difference between finding expected results and arriving at ideas that are more unusual and original. Many students, as well as practitioners, tend to focus on what the client asks for rather than taking that information into consideration but focusing on a more diverse perspective. By basing the resolution on a client’s brief (or problem), you may easily miss out on opportunities that go beyond the scope of the client’s problem or fail to develop solutions that are original, unusual and innovative.
The average problem solver is focused on identifying the obvious and most common facts about a problem or task. But allotting more time and resources to discovering unusual facts and insights, as well as looking at a problem from various different perspectives, problem solvers can uncover powerful
information that will increase the potential of developing more innovative solutions. In my own teaching experience and agency practice, I have pushed the idea of “let’s find the most unusual facts, uncover new information and try to educate our clients” by adding not only a new perspective, but also more value. This goes hand-in-hand with postponing the ideation phase until we know what the real problem is and then applying our unusual insights and perspectives to it.
The second step in the process is fact finding. During this step, it is
important to look at all the facts related to the assignment, including the ones that you may initially assume are not relevant or important. Our minds often process information unconsciously and direct our thinking in very specific directions. Such unconscious guidance can be helpful in some cases but detrimental in others.
Clearly allocating resources and spending as much time as possible
identifying facts provides a nurturing ground to create more ideas during the ideation phase.
Before starting the idea finding phase, the Osborn-Parnes process recommends a separate phase, called the problem finding step. During the problem finding step, one should reexamine the initial problem and determine if it is still the same problem after all of the facts have been considered. The problem may need to be broken down into smaller or simpler problems because it is possible that the problem is too big to be solved in one step.
Real-World Example: A few years ago, several of my graduate students at Emerson College participated in InterAd, an international student competition organized by the International Advertising Association (IAA) in New York, which was sponsored by the international advertising agency network Dentsu.
The United Nations (the client) required competition participants to develop a marketing strategy and communication campaign that would help the
organization in its eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG) for improving world prosperity by 2015. The UN’s MDG were as follows:
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Ensure all boys and girls complete primary school 3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce the mortality rate of children under five by two-thirds 5. Reduce the ratio of women dying in childbirth by three-fourths
6. Halt and reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and malaria and other major diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Create a global partnership for development; ensuring developed countries play their part to help developing countries end poverty You will likely agree that this is a huge communication task. Solving this problem may require dividing the problem into smaller chunks and applying a different thinking process. Rather than trying to address each of these
millennium goals as a whole, our student team, Half Glass Full, tried to break down the problem into smaller units. They conducted consumer research and identified ways to expose audiences to smaller issues. Building on the insight that most people feel overwhelmed when exposed to complex problems, they decided to reach consumers’ ability and willingness to get involved. The theme “StopW8ting” emerged and served as an umbrella message for the various goals of the UN. Each of the eight challenges was addressed individually within an overall integrated marketing campaign.
Creative Problem Solving Process: Osborn & Parnes. Adopted from Paul Williams, Idea Sandbox, Alexandria, VA17
It can be helpful to analyze a problem against the setting in which it is situated, using many different perspectives and then ask: Does the problem still appear to be the real problem within the context we need to solve or has a different problem arisen? Redefining the problem can be one of the most powerful first steps towards developing creative solutions. This requires in- depth knowledge within a specific domain, as well as the ability to
marginalize anything known and accepted within that domain.
Phase four is called idea finding. During this phase, it is important to generate as many ideas as possible, be it individually or as a group. Being aware of the dimensions fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration can improve the total number of ideas developed. This phase is when divergent thinking skills are applied best. Judgment, assumptions and criticism are the enemies of this phase. Several different thinking techniques, which are described in more detail in the next chapter, can and should be applied in
order to increase the likelihood and possibility of coming up with the best solutions. These include brainstorming, lateral thinking, mindmapping, six thinking hats, chain of associations, brainwriting, brainfloating, visual synectics, provocation, concept fan, random input, morphological analysis, among many others.
Once you have generated a sufficient number of ideas during the idea
finding phase, it is time to select the best ones. During the fifth phase, solution finding, it is important to establish some specific checklists or evaluation criteria, which will help narrow down the solutions and identify the best ideas that will solve the problem in the most unusual, relevant and effective way.
This phase is also considered the convergent phase, since convergent thinking is required in order to narrow down ideas. As soon as one or several winning ideas emerge, users of this process move into the next phase: acceptance finding.
During the acceptance finding stage, thinkers explore and apply a proof of concept. The winning idea(s) must be tested against the problem. The model, which consists of the attributes needed to meet the expected outcome, can be applied when determining the best idea or ideas.
Design thinking provides another very interesting and applicable problem- solving process. Initially developed by engineers at Stanford University, the philosophy of design thinking was advanced and publicized by the design firm IDEO. David Kelley, a cofounder of IDEO, and Tim Brown, president of IDEO, have presented their methodology in numerous outlets, such as TED Talks, 60 Minutes and the Harvard Business Review. Design thinking centers around the understanding and observation of what people want and need in their life, as well as what they like and dislike about existing products in terms of packaging, marketing and how the products are supported. The designer then can match these needs with what is technologically feasible and create a product or service that will have customer value and market opportunity.