Conventions
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.2.2 The linguistic demography of Rai-Kiranti languages
Kirant Rai Yayokkha in 2001 surveyed the Kiranti speaking areas, and reports that 26 Kiranti languages are spoken there. The Kiranti subgroup comprises some 30 languages (Ebert 1994), but Hanβon (1991) and Grimes (2000) estimate closer to 40. Table 1 presents the linguistic demography that is adapted from Central Bureau of Statistics (2001) of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal.
Table 1: Linguistic demography of Rai-Kiranti languages Rai-Kiranti languages Speakers Bantawa 371,056 Camling 44,096 Kulung 18,686 Thulung 14,034 Sangpang 10, 810 Khaling 9,288 Dumi 5,271 Umbule 4,471 Puma 4,310 Nachiring 3,553 Bahing 2,765 Koyu 2,641 Yamphule 1,722 Chiling 1,314 Lohurung 1,027 Mewahang 904 Tilung 310 Jerung 271 Dungmali 221 Lingkhim 97 Sam 23 Chintang 8 Total: 497,055
37 1.3 The Kiranti people and languages
The term ‘Kiranti’ denotes both a geographical and linguistic meaning to the Tibeto- Burman peoples native to eastern Nepal, specifically the Limbu and Rai groups (Opgenort 2004: 1–2). Thus, it refers to both ‘people’ and ‘language’. Kirant is the name of the eastern part of Nepal, geographically mountainous and hilly region. It is subdivided into three distinct regions: Pallo Kirant, Majh Kirant and Wallo Kirant (van Driem 2001). The languages spoken in this region are known as Kiranti languages.
Linguistically, Kiranti is one of the subgroups of the Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal. As a linguistic concept, Kiranti is one of the branches of Tibeto-Burman corresponding to Benedict’s Bahing-Vayu nucleus (Benedict 1972: 4–11). It comprises languages like Limbu, Yakkha, and Rai as collective language groups. Most Kiranti languages have first person inclusive and exclusive pronouns and mark duality in the nominal and verbal morphology. Verbal agreement systems in Kiranti languages are very complex as both A and P arguments are inflected in agreement for transitive verbs (see Section 3:8).
Kiranti is one of the important ethnic groups in Nepal. They served and are still serving the British and Indian Army. They earned a reputation for bravery and courage in the battlefield as many of them were awarded the Victoria Cross for fighting in the First and Second World War. The Kiranti languages are further divided into smaller groups of languages that show more resemblance with each other than with other groups of the Kiranti languages.
Puma’s close relationship with the languages Bantawa and Camling has been recognised from survey research. Hanßon (1991: 78) argues that Puma shares the highest degree of lexical agreement with Camling whereas most grammatical features are shared with Bantawa in the south of the confluence of the Sunkoshī and Dudhkoshī rivers. This close relationship of Puma with Bantawa and Camling is obvious and they are classified as Central Kiranti in all classifications. van Driem (2001: 710) notes that the Puma area is sandwiched in between Bantawa territory to the east and Camling territory to the west.
The map in Figure 2 (© SIL International 2013, redistribution prohibited without written permission of SIL International) shows the different languages from the four language families that are spoken in the eastern part of Nepal.
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Figure 2: Languages of eastern part of Nepal
39 1.3.1 The Puma people
The Puma people are one of small ethnic groups of Nepal most affected by migration, modernisation and modification. They have their own language, rich cultural heritage and tradition. Despite the recent advances in modern science and technology as well as wider use of Nepali language as a lingua franca, they have retrained their distinct identities in a remarkable way, particularly in rural areas where they have maintained their language and kept their tradition with originality.
The same term ‘Puma’ refers both to the people and the language they speak. The Puma people are friendly, helpful and very open living in the rural areas of southern- eastern part of Khotang district. The majority of the emigrants are found in Belṭār, Basahā and Maḍibās of Udayapur distirict. Moreover, many Pumas also live in urban areas like Kathmandu, Dharan, and Itahari. There has also been an increase in their number of Pumas who have settled more or less permanently aboard such as UK, USA, Hong Kong and Europe.
The Puma people practise sedentary agriculture and animal husbandry (see also Section 1.9). They are educationally, politically and economicaly highly marginalised.
Boksa ‘pork’ is their preferred meat, while eating suŋsa ‘goat meat’ is forbidden for some Puma people. In the past, they were not allowed to touch goats either. But now goat husbandry is becoming a source of income (see Section 1.10).
Drinking alcohol is a common practice among all Rai-Kiranti people, and as such they are quite different from the higher caste Hindus in Nepal, who did not drink any alcohol in the past but now some of them do and who eat castrated goat (Tolsma 2006).
Not only lower castes living in Puma villages such as Kāmī, blacksmiths and Damai, tailors, but also higher castes such as Kshertī, have largely adopted the Puma way of life in as much as they drink alcohol and eat pork.
According to the CPDP, most Puma people older than forty years still have some knowledge of the Puma language, but language competence varies considerably from family to family.
Figure 3: The author with the Puma people at Dharān