Action rather than thought is the primary focus in a practice-based perspective.
Knowledge and knowing are seen as inseparable from human activity and practice (Orlikowski 2002). Knowing is argued to be ‘embedded’ in human activity. The real- ist philosopher, John Macmurray, suggested that we substitute the Cartesian (idealist) dictum ‘Cogito ergo sum’ (I think therefore I am) to ‘Ago ergo sum’ (I do therefore I am). He insisted that action was more primary than thought, with the assertion that thought begins only where action fails (MacMurray 1933). From this perspective, knowing is seen as something we do rather than an entity we possess.
Orlikowski (2002) argues that knowing and practice are mutually constituted and knowing is enacted through people’s everyday activities. Knowing does not exist exter- nally in objects or systems or internally in human brains or communities. Instead, knowing exists in the whole human body and is ‘an ongoing social accomplishment, constituted and reconstituted in everyday practice’. However, she contends that mate- rial objects and artefacts such as information and communication technologies play an important role in knowing. She uses the metaphor of a ‘scaffold’ to describe how material artefacts such as mobile phones and laptops structure/‘scaffold’ particular social activities at any given time. She argues that the social and material are ‘constitutively entangled’ in everyday life (Orlikowski 2007). The design of material artefacts such as computer systems influences human activity and knowing but is also changed by the same activity.
Language is used in social activity to convey meaning. From a practice-based per- spective, the meaning arising from language can be ‘ambiguous’ as knowledge depends on context and the changing nature of social activity in different environments. A pos- itivist perspective would assert that language has a fixed and objective meaning.
The practice-based perspective is rooted in realist philosophy. Realists explain social phenomena in terms of three aspects: the underlying structures in a social context, the social processes and the external behaviours we observe at any given time (Bhaskar 1978). The premise is that any social activity has underlying structures that lead to the enactment of certain social processes which, in turn, lead to certain social behav- iours and actions. Jashapara (2007) has adopted this realist theory of explanation to describe the nature of organisational knowledge as the capacity for action, as shown in Figure 2.8. He argues that the organisational knowledge structures are composed of
Chapter 2 / The nature of knowing 53
the collective memory. This memory develops its coherence by connecting and inter- weaving along social and temporal dimensions. The social space of meaning allows the continuous flow of actions, narratives and images to pass from one generation to the next. This enables practical and theoretical knowledge to be preserved and transmitted, as well as formative past experiences (Cohen and Levinthal 1990).
In this conception Jashapara (2007) proposes that the main knowledge processes are associated with collective consciousness. From a realist perspective, consciousness is at the same time a mental state and an internal biological phenomenon arising from brain activity (Searle 1999). At the organisational level, collective consciousness is still experienced at the individual level as a mental state which is constituted and reconsti- tuted in everyday experience. It is not some form of Hegelian spirit floating above an individual’s head. Instead, collective consciousness is produced in a process through interactions in work teams and communities of practice. Such consciousness is situated in the historical, socio-materialistic and cultural context in which it occurs (Gherardi and Nicolini 2000). These shared mental models are influenced by the strength of per- sonal relationships, the stories that provide cognitive and social embedding of ideas and people as well as the dynamic construction of meaning through language.
Jashapara (2007) argues that the drivers or sparks for organisational knowl- edge creation and transformation are routines and sense-making processes.
ACTION
Intentionality
Continuum PRESENT
Consciousness MECHANISMS
(PROCESSES)
Attitudes Social
capital Explicit BEHAVIOURS
Knowledge Tacit
Skills
PAST
STRUCTURES
New problem or situation INDIVIDUAL KNOWLEDGE
ACTION
Intentionality
Continuum Customer capital
PRESENT Collective consciousness
(social networks) Explicit Tacit
Human capital Organisational capital PAST
Ecological change ORGANISATIONAL KNOWLEDGE
Memory Organisational memory
Figure 2.8 Realist conception of organisational knowledge (Jashapara 2007)
Organisational routines provide the coordination mechanisms for integrating spa- tially and temporally dispersed knowledge. They allow different perspectives to be explored and common understandings to be developed within an organisational context of power relations, performance expectations and organisational iden- tity. From this theoretical perspective, sense-making processes are not about the accuracy of organisational interpretations but rather the search for plausible sto- ries that incorporate observations and past experiences (Weick 1995; Weick et al.
2005). This overall conception of organisational knowledge acknowledges the key role of memory and consciousness which has been missing in recent debates.
CASE STUDY
The gauntlet had been thrown down. James Wolfensohn, president of the World Bank, want- ed a shift in paradigm from knowledge repositor- ies and communities of practice. He was looking for a deepening in maturity of KM activities more towards engaging with external partners and utilising the combined knowledge towards effective local solutions. This was a tall order and Bruno Laporte, Manager of Knowledge and Learning Services at the World Bank, was tasked with putting forward workable proposals for their next meeting in two weeks. Bruno decided to have a cup of coffee and reflect on how he might go about this assignment.
In 1996 James Wolfensohn put forward a bold vision of the World Bank as a ‘knowledge bank’.
His vision was clear.
‘We have been in the business of researching and disseminating the lessons of development for a long time. But the revolution in information technol- ogy increases the potential value of these efforts by vastly extending their reach. To capture this poten- tial, we need to invest in the necessary systems, in Washington and worldwide, that will enhance our ability to gather development information and experience, and share it with our clients.’
He did not see lending alone as achieving pov- erty reduction. Instead, he believed that knowl- edge sharing of ‘know how’ on project imple- mentation internally within the World Bank and with external partners was more likely to have a greater impact. Knowledge was clearly seen as
more powerful in poverty reduction than simply providing financial loans. This was a radical step away from former perceptions of the role of the World Bank and called for a radical change in mindsets of all employees. Information technol- ogies and the internet were seen as useful cata- lysts for tapping into the vast store of dispersed knowledge within the World Bank and mobilis- ing this knowledge for local initiatives.
At this time, Washington was the central locus of World Bank activities. Anything of any importance had to be sanctioned through the Washington HQ. Often when field officers con- tacted Washington offices over development assistance, the problem would be resolved on the ground before any response was forthcom- ing. Typically, it could take a month simply for documents to go backwards and forwards between Washington and the field site. The effectiveness of these centralised operations was being questioned.
James Wolfensohn recognised that technol- ogy could provide an answer to some of their challenges, but he was mindful that in many client countries there was a lack of basic infra- structure such as electricity and telecommu- nications capabilities. Following an in-depth analysis of the various technological options, the World Bank selected satellite technology as the most appropriate global communications technology particularly given the deficiencies of basic infrastructure in many countries. But this didn’t come without its fair share of costs and a measure of resistance from some countries. India
World Bank (US)
Chapter 2 / The nature of knowing 55
and Pakistan were initially reluctant to have a satellite network in their countries hosted by an external party. Also, satellite dishes and equip- ment were prone to damage from the harsh cli- mates and interference by animals.1
In order to become a ‘knowledge bank’, the World Bank adopted the notion of ‘communities of practice’ as a key strategy. They called these
‘thematic groups’ and saw them as the best way of creating and sharing knowledge. The thematic groups were informal groups that had some work- based social connection. The informality of the groups allowed trust to develop and a greater propensity for colleagues to engage in dialogue and discussion over work-related issues. This often resulted in individuals freely sharing their knowl- edge and expertise and, at times, the creation of new knowledge from the dialogue and interac- tion. The World Bank provided modest funding for communication such as creating intranets and newsletters and some funding for face-to-face meetings. Soon there were more than 100 the- matic groups recognised by the bank.2 The combi- nation of web-based satellite technology and the thematic groups meant that people could inter- act with one another in a way that had never been possible before.
Stories and storytelling were important tools in the thematic groups. Dr Steve Denning, the former Head of Knowledge Management at the World Bank, saw stories as agents for mobilising knowledge and action. ‘Perhaps the most pow- erful role of stories today is to ignite and drive changes in management policy and practices.’
He recognised that stories engaged listeners as participants to share in the experiences and to co-create the story, which changed on each occa- sion it was retold. Stories often spell out a pre- dicament and are often filled with drama, crises and conflicts before they reach some form of conclusion. Dr Steve Denning acknowledged that stories are integral to our everyday understand- ing of the world around us.
‘The way we share and jointly shape stories is important for three fundamental reasons. This is how we create a sense of who we are, our sense of self or identity, it is how we socially construct reality, and it is how we co-ordinate actions. Facts
and figures are only small parts in a storied under- standing that communicates to us far more impor- tant issues such as: character, causality, motive, morality, tension, drama, success and failure. The story brings the meaning to facts and figures in a way that tells us how we should act.’3
A noteworthy example of the power of satel- lite communication technology and thematic groups came from Nigeria. A team leader sent an e-mail to a thematic group asking advice on good practice for a national transport strategy in Nigeria. The first response arrived in 20 minutes and there were detailed responses from eleven countries with 24 hours. These responses includ- ed transport strategy reforms in other countries and working papers on strategy development.
The consequence of this query was to reduce the technical assistance costs and speed up develop- ment of the national transport strategy.4 Cross- border knowledge sharing requires a considerable investment in time, money and people to gener- ate the necessary levels of trust and cultural sen- sitivity, particularly between individualistic and more family-oriented cultures.5
In terms of technological advances to aid knowledge sharing, the World Bank had instigat- ed a Development Gateway website as a platform for the development community. This portal included help-desk and advisory services, knowl- edge repositories on the web, tacit knowledge debriefings and sites for the thematic groups.6 There were more than 20 advisory groups act- ing as knowledge intermediaries on all aspects of the bank’s business. In addition, the satellite technology allowed videoconferencing around the world, interactive TV, online learning appli- cations such as WebCT, web-based video casting and online discussion forums and newsletters.
There was some resistance and scepticism to these interventions by staff. The cynics viewed knowledge management as the latest fad with the ‘techies’ taking over the organisation.
In 2003 the bank decided to conduct an independent evaluation of its knowledge man- agement activities through the Operations Evaluations Department (OED).7 Internal staff surveys were generally positive indicat- ing favourable responses to having sufficient
➨
Summary
This chapter has elaborated four main themes:
1 The development of western philosophy with its perpetual quest for an understand- ing of knowledge underlies many contemporary justifications of the term. Broadly, western philosophy has created a distinction between the idealist philosophers who view knowledge as an entity within our minds and empirical philosophers who view knowledge as arising from our senses.
2 The notions of ‘knowing that’ and ‘knowing how’ arising from Gilbert Ryle and Michael Polanyi are considered to exist along a continuum rather than as separate entities. The current typologies of knowledge within the literature are expressed as a reworking of this form of logical behaviourism.
3 The competing philosophical positions are explored using Burrell and Morgan’s framework, especially the more common perspectives of positivism, constructivism, postmodernism and realism in knowledge management research.
4 A realist theory of the structure of knowledge is presented based on ‘past experience’
to underpin the processes of ‘knowing how’ and the outcomes of ‘knowing that’. It is argued that a reflection phase is primary in transforming organisational routines to double-loop learning in the underlying structure of knowledge.
knowledge and information to conduct their work (83 per cent). Also, externally the World Bank had received accolades through the MAKE (Most Admired Knowledge Enterprise) awards and named as Best Practice Partner with the American Productivity & Quality Center. But the evaluation did recognise some areas for growth.
The evaluation recognised that the Bank could do more in applying its KM tools to core busi- ness processes such as support for its task teams in their operational work. Also, regional units, country teams and task managers could do more to apply their knowledge services more strategi- cally to clients.
Bruno Laporte finished his cup of coffee. By coincidence, Karen Millet, Director of Knowledge Programmes walked by. ‘Ah, Karen, can I have a word? I want to pick your brains over some new KM proposals. Can we pencil a time to meet in our diaries?’
References
1 Regani, S. (ed.) (2004) Knowledge Sharing Initiatives at the World Bank: Creating a ‘Knowledge Bank’, Hyderabad, India, ICFAI Centre for Management Research.
2 Laporte, B. (2004) ‘The evolution of the knowledge bank’, Inside Knowledge.
3 Dearlove, D. (2003) ‘The power of fairy tales’, The Times, London.
4 Laporte, B. (2004) ‘The evolution of the knowledge bank’, Inside Knowledge.
5 McMahon, M. (2006) ‘Best practice: knowledge management – Moving knowledge across borders’, Financial Times, London.
6 Laporte, B. (2003) ‘Knowledge sharing at the World Bank: The fad that would not go away’, Inside Knowledge.
7 Ash, J. (2005) ‘Running on empty? Maintaining momentum as KM matures’, Inside Knowledge.
Questions
1 What advice would you give Bruno Laporte on potential interventions for the next phase of growth in the World Bank’s knowledge management activities?
2 How could knowledge management activities be applied more centrally to the World Bank’s core business?
3 What interventions would allow the World Bank’s knowledge to be used strategically for the aid of clients in developing countries?
Chapter 2 / The nature of knowing 57
Further reading
1 Magee, B. (2000) is an excellent introduction to the thinking of western philosophers in the form of a dialogue between Magee and academics who have spent a lifetime studying particular philosophers.
2 Ryle, G. (1949) acts as the basis for much of the philosophical assumptions around the notion of ‘knowledge’ in the current literature.
3 Jashapara (2007) articulates a realist and practice-based perspective of organisational knowledge that acknowledges the key roles of organisational memory and consciousness.
Questions for further thought
1 Do you agree with the idealist notion that knowledge can only exist in our heads? If not, what alternative can you provide to our current conception of knowledge?
2 What are the strongest arguments against an empiricist perspective of knowledge?
3 Using Hegel’s notion of the dialectic process, which one of the competing perspectives is likely to provide a credible antithesis to the dominant positivist paradigm in management research?
4 From Husserl’s perspective, knowledge is linked to a directed mental content called
‘intentionality’ in our consciousness. What are the merits and drawbacks of this perspective in knowledge management?
5 What are the likely consequences of an almost total lack of regard of issues concerning language in knowledge management research?
6 How could a philosophical understanding of knowledge improve worker performance?
7 Philosophical debates are often excluded and denigrated as being esoteric and inappropriate for management. Can this position be defended in the further quest for knowledge?
8 If knowledge is not purely about what we can say, how can we incorporate other forms of communication such as non-verbal cues into our theory of knowledge?
9 What is the difference between data, information and knowledge in an organisation?
How can a manager effectively transform data and information into effective knowledge? How can organisations manage competing and often conflicting interpretations of the same data and information? What are the drawbacks of relying on position power in these circumstances?
10 If the underlying structure of knowledge is past experience, what are the drawbacks of considering intuitions, hunches and insights as part of one’s past experience?
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