CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
B. Theoretical Framework
The term ―mastery‖ means having great skillfulness and knowledge of some activities or subjects. Vocabulary mastery is comprehensive knowledge to recognize, to understand, and to produce the stock of words and their meaning. The mastery of English itself is closely related to the ability of the learner in acquiring the vocabulary. According to Henry and Pongrantz (2006) as cited in Aswal et.al, argued that
―mastering a language means being able to comprehend the vocabulary and its phonological system both in speech and in writing‖25. It means that learner who learns English as a second language must comprehend the meaning of the words and be able to apply them in sentences. The mastery of vocabulary is a prime prerequisite to determine the success of a person who has language skills. A person who has rich vocabularies will be easier
25 Aswal Syarifudin, Rismaya Marbun, and Dewi Novita, ―Analysis on the Students’ Vocabulary Mastery a Descriptive Study on the MTs,‖ Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Pembelajaran Khatulistiwa 3, no. 9 (2014): 1–10.
to communicate and receive the information well in written, oral, and also using a signal or symbol26.
2. Vocabulary
a. Definition of Vocabulary
Vocabulary is one of the means in language acquisition to master the target language. Vocabulary is a set of words which people used to make and understand the sentences 27 . Vocabulary is comprehension the meaning of words. Knowledge of words come from two forms, those are print and oral. Oral vocabulary means that words which we know from speaking, meanwhile print vocabulary is words which we know from reading 28. Neuman & Dwyer 29 defined vocabulary as ''words we must know to communicate effectively;
words in speaking (expressive vocabulary) and words in listening (receptive vocabulary)''.
According to Ur, vocabulary can be defined ―as the words we teach in the foreign language. However a new item of vocabulary may be more than a single word: for example, post office and mother-in- law, which are made up of two or three words but express a single
26 Ina Rizki Thatsani, ―Vocabulary Mastery and Grammar Mastery Impact on Efl High School Comprehension,‖ 2018, 97–103.
27 Diyas Herdian Putra, Ikhsanudin, and Eusabinus Bunau, ―CORRELATION BETWEEN VOCABULARY MASTERY AND FLUENCY IN SPEAKING AT UNIVERSITAS TANJUNGPURA,‖ Premise : Journal of English Education and Applied Linguistics 10, no. 1 (2021): 36–53, https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210120.129.
28 Michael L. Kamil and Elfrieda H. Hiebert, Teaching and Learning Vocabulary Bringing Research to Practice, (New Jersey: Lwarence Erlbaum Associates, 2005), p.3
Accessed on December, 25 2022, available on website: http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk/
29 Susan B. Neuman and Julie Dwyer, ―Missing in Action: Vocabulary Instruction in Pre-K,‖ The Reading Teacher 62, no. 5 (2009): 384–392, https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.62.5.2.
idea‖ 30 . In addition, John & Shane stated that vocabulary is fundamental part of language proficiency and plays significant role of the basis for how well students read, write, speak, and listen 31.
Based on the definition explained above, the researcher concludes that vocabulary is a group of words which has meaning. It is used to form a sentence, sometimes consists of more than one word but still has one meaning. Vocabulary has a big role in learning a language because it makes people can master whole skills.
2. Kinds of Vocabulary
According to Nation32, vocabulary divides into two categories:
1) Receptive Vocabulary
Receptive implies that we make an effort to comprehend language input from others that we have read about or heard about.
Recognizing a word's form when reading or listening and remembering its meaning are both components of using receptive vocabulary. It consists of components that can only be activated by external stimulation. They become active when they hear or see the words. Because receptive vocabulary almost probably contains numerous words that people do not frequently use while speaking and writing, it is broader than productive vocabulary. Receptive vocabulary is also known as passive vocabulary.
30 Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 60. 31 John J Pikulski and Shane Templeton, ―Teaching and Developing Vocabulary: Key to Long- Term Reading Success,‖ Current Research in Reading / Language Arts, 2004, 1–12, https://www.eduplace.com/marketing/nc/pdf/author_pages.pdf.
32 I.S.P Nation, Teaching Vocabulary in Another Language Third Edition, (Cambridge:
Cambridge: University Press, 2022), 52.
2) Productive Vocabulary
In order to communicate with others, we generate language by speaking and writing, which is what the word "productive"
suggests. When people want to communicate a message orally or in writing, they search for the appropriate spoken or written word form. Because people can create words to communicate their ideas to others, it can be triggered by other words. Productive vocabulary is also known as active vocabulary.
Furthermore, in learning vocabulary there is classification of word which commonly called part of speech. According to Hatch& Brown, part of speech is used to categorize words according to their many functional groups. In part of speech there are major and minor classes. Major classes include verb, adjective, noun, and adverb. Minor classes include pronoun, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections33.
1) Noun
Noun refers to a person, place, or thing. Noun may serve as the subject of a sentence, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition. Example:
- My cat plays with the pink yarn.
- I recommend this movie.
33 Evelyn Marcussen Hatch and Cheryl Brown, ―Vocabulary, Semantics, and Language Education,‖ (Cambridge: Cambridge Language Teaching Library, 1995), 218.
2) Verb
Verb is an action word; it is a word that describes an action or activity carried out by the subject of the sentence. For example:
- He writes a poem - She eats banana cake 3) Adj ective
Adjective is used to emphasize characteristics and it is frequently employed to characterize certain nouns. It is a word that gives more information about a noun or pronoun34. Example:
- She has beautiful hair - They are rich family.
4) Adverb
Adverb is word that used to give a clearer and more detailed description of adjective, verb, clause, and another adverb.
There are several categories of adverb namely adverbs of time (example: now, tomorrow); adverbs of frequency (example:
always, never, seldom); adverbs of place (example: here, there);
adverbs of manner (example: happily, slowly).
5) Pronoun
Pronoun may relate to nouns that have previously been discussed in the discourse or it signals a noun that will be discussed soon. Example: I, you, we, they, he, she, it.
34 Jeremy Harmer, How To Teach English (England: Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1998), 37.
6) Preposition
Preposition is a word which is used to show the way in which other words are connected. Preposition usually used in front of nouns or pronouns to indicate position, direction, time, place, and so on. Example:
- The dog is playing in the box.
- I put my book on the table.
7) Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that joins two clauses, phrases, or sentences together. Although there are many distinct kinds of conjunctions, we frequently use and, or, and but. These are called coordinating conjunctions. Adverbial conjunctions (because, while, unless) are sometimes called logical connectors because they clarify the relation between the linked clauses35. Example:
- I buy some cheese and my brother buys a bottle of milk.
- I go to the bed because I am sleepy 8) Interjection
A word or phrase that is used in a brief exclamation is an interjection. To convey quick bursts of emotion like shock, delight, or perplexity. Example:
- Oh no! I forgot bring my wallet.
- Wow! It is a beautiful dress.
35 Hatch and Brown, ―Vocabulary, Semantics, and Language Education, 238‖
In this research, the researcher only used major classes namely noun, verb, adjective, and adverb because the researcher wanted to know culinary students’ vocabulary mastery relates to procedure text such as food ingredients, cooking verbs, kitchen tool, various flavors of food, and so on.
3. Speaking
a. Definition of Speaking
Speaking is a mean for people to communicate, delivering information, and sharing ideas to others. Thornburry argued that
―speaking is so much a part of life that we take it for granted. The average person produces tens of thousands of words a day‖36. Speaking is a form of oral communication that is extremely useful for expressing opinions. It is a practice in English that is used to communicate in daily life37.
According to Nunan & Carter, ―speaking is physically situated face-to-face interaction: usually speakers can see each other and so can refer to the physical context and use a number of physical signals to indicate, for instance, attention to the interaction, their intention to contribute and their attitude towards what is being said‖38. Speaking is a way of conveying information for a certain purpose. It entails
36 Scott Thornbury, How To Teach Speaking, (Harlow: Pearson Education Longman, 2005), p.1.
37 Mauloeddin Afna and Sutriani, ―THE CORRELATION BETWEEN VOCABULARY AND SPEAKING SKILL,‖ JL3T Journal of Linguistics, Literature & Language Teaching IV, no. 1 (2018): 43–71.
38 David Nunan and Ronald Carter, The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, (USA: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 16.
sharing thoughts and opinions, expressing a willingness to act, fixing a specific issue, and upholding social bonds. We need to activate a variety of suitable expressions in order to reach these speaking objectives39. Speaking has two functions; those are transactional and interpersonal functions. The interpersonal function is all about upholding and sustaining positive relationships between people, while the fundamental objectives of the transactional function are to facilitate the exchange of goods and services and to communicate information40.
From the explanation about speaking above, the researcher concludes that speaking is a means of oral communication that people use to share information, ideas with others, and also as a means for practicing English in daily life. Speaking typically involves face-to- face interaction. It has two functions, namely interpersonal and transactional. Interpersonal means maintaining relationships with others. Meanwhile, transactional is transferring certain information to others.
b. Types of Speaking
According to Brown41 , types of speaking are divided into six types:
39 Jo McDonough, Christopher Shaw, and and Hitomi Masuhara, MATERIALS AND METHODS IN ELT A TEACHER’S GUIDE Third Edition, (United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013), p,157.
40 Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching Fourth Edition, (London: Pearson Longman, 2001), 343.
41 H.Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy Second Edition, (San Francisco: Longman, 2000), 271-274.
1. Imitative
Imitative is the simplest types of speaking. Imitation is carried out for focusing on particular element of language. For example learners practice pronunciation. This type involves drilling activity, so learners listen to the teacher or audio that is played such as word, phrase, and sentence. Then they repeat or imitate it many times orally.
2. Intensive
Intensive is one level above imitative speaking. It is more emphasizes the ability of students on specific phonological or grammatical component of language. Intensive speaking can be self- initiated or even included in a pair work exercise.
3. Responsive
Responsive means giving feedback. This speaking type involves interaction between two or more people. For example in the classroom, the teacher asks to the student then the students answer.
Typically, these responses are simple, short, and do not lead to further conversations.
4. Transactional (dialogue)
Transactional speaking is broader than responsive speaking.
The purpose of this type is delivering, sharing, or exchanging particular information. The conversations are longer than responsive speaking. For example is doing discussion, interviewing, etc.
5. Interpersonal (dialogue)
Interpersonal dialogue is another type of conversation. It is done more for the purpose of preserving social ties than for information transfer. For example when we meet our friends, we ask how they are; ask how their holiday is.
6. Extensive (monologue)
This type is used for intermediate and advanced levels.
Advanced students must perform extensive monologues as oral reports, summaries, or possibly short speeches. The language in this instance is more formal and intentional. These monologues may be prepared or spontaneous.
In this research, the researcher used extensive speaking by explaining how to make food or dessert.
c. Aspects of Speaking Ability
According to Brown, there are five aspects of speaking, they are as follows42:
1. Grammar
Grammar is a description of a language's structure and the way words and other linguistic constructions are put together to form sentences in that language43. In order for people to understand what we say, we have to arrange sentence with correct grammar.
42 Brown, Language Assessment Principles and Classroom Practice, 157.
43 Jack C. Richards and Richards Schmidt, Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, (Great Britain: Pearson Education Limited, 2010), 251.
2. Vocabulary
Vocabulary becomes a fundamental component that helps speakers communicate and convey their thoughts44. To create a sentence, we need vocabulary. The greater a person's vocabulary, the more effectively they can communicate their ideas. Without vocabulary, we cannot deliver anything to others.
3. Comprehension
The ability to communicate and listen with understanding is known as comprehension. Understanding and acquiring knowledge require comprehension. Communication must be understood by the listener in order to be effective; otherwise, communication will be useless.
4. Fluency
Fluency in speaking refers to the capacity to create utterances or oral productions that can be comprehended by both the listener and the speaker45. The amount of hesitation and the speed of access or production are two common ways to measure fluency. Speaking fluency is a crucial part of communication competency because it enables the speaker to keep the communicative ideas more successfully and to make continuous speaking without the listener experiencing any comprehension issues.
44 Nella, Hera Hartati, and Mita Lianah, ―Students ’ Ability in Vocabulary Mastery at the Second Grade Students ’ of Smpn 10 Merangin Academic Year 2019 / 2020,‖ Selecting: English
Education Program Journal 2, no. 2 (2020): 57–67,
https://journal.stkipypmbangko.ac.id/index.php/Selecting/article/view/354.
45 Hariyanto, ―The Assessment Procedures of Speaking Fluency Using Retelling Technique,‖
Jurnal Edulingua 3, no. 2 (2016): 7–14, https://ejournal.unisnu.ac.id/JE/article/view/502.
5. Pronunciation
Speaking skill cannot be separated from pronunciation.
Understanding the language's content involves pronouncing the word correctly46. Correct pronunciation of language sounds, syllables, words, phrases, and sentences ensures that the listener will grasp the speaker's meaning without any confusion.
In this research, the researcher assessed students’ speaking ability based on three aspects namely vocabulary, fluency, and pronunciation because the researcher wanted to know vocabulary which they mastered in culinary field, their fluency, and the correct pronunciation of words when they were explaining the procedure of making the food or dessert.
d. Kinds of Test
Test is one of the measurement tools of students’ achievement. A test can be said to be successful in carrying out its measuring function if it is able to provide measuring accurate results. There are two types of test, namely subjective tests and objective tests.
1. Subjective Tests
A subjective test is one that needs students' opinions and descriptions for grading. The students are required to describe their concepts in their own words, either through an essay, a letter, or an oral presentation. In subjective test, especially in speaking assessment there are two ways of assessing speaking performance as follows:
46 Syaifullah and Della Fitri Hona, ―Pronunciation in Speaking Skill Students of English Education,‖ Lectura: Jurnal Pendidikan 7 (2016): 57–67.
a. Analytic rubric
Analytic rubric is used to assess specific components of skill. It contains a number of criteria, usually have three to five criteria, each of criteria has detail descriptions. The detailed guidelines that analytical rubrics provide to raters and the in-depth data they provide on the particular strengths and weaknesses of examinee performances are some of its benefits47. In analytic rubric each score level for each criterion is described as clearly as possible.
b. Holistic rubric
Holistic rubric gives a single score that captures the whole impression of an examinee's abilities. When holistic rubric is applied as rating scales, the raters may be asked to concentrate simply on the overall impression. There are several advantages of this kind of rubric, namely: holistic rubric is practical for making decisions because it simply assigns one score, and it makes rating fast from the rater’s opinion because there is less to read and remember than in a complex grid with numerous criteria. Besides that, the holistic rubric also has disadvantage namely they are not practical for identifying strengths and weaknesses in individual learners’ performances48.
2. Objective Test
An objective test is test that is graded by comparing the students' response to the appropriate response (answer key). This test is referred to
47 Sari Louma, Assessing Speaking, Handbook of Second Language Assessment (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2004), https://doi.org/10.1017/s0267190500003548.
48 Louma, 61.
as objective since it is assessed objectively, and the results will be consistent because the test has a predetermined answer regardless whoever the rater. According to Hughes there are several kinds of objective tests namely:
1) Multiple Choice Items
Although there are many different types of multiple choice items, their fundamental design consists of a stem and several choice answers, generally there are four options. One of those options is correct, and the others are distractors49.
2) Yes/No and True/False Items
Items on a test where the candidate must only select between TRUE and FALSE, or between YES and NO are functionally multiple choice questions with only two choices. The test-taker has a 50%
probability of selecting the right answer just by chance, which is obviously a disadvantage of these kinds of items. Items of this type have no place in a formal test, but they might be useful in assessments where the correctness of the results is not crucial. True/False questions may occasionally be altered by requesting test takers to explain their selection. But this additional requirement is problematic since it introduces a possibly difficult writing assignment when writing is not meant to be evaluated, and secondly because it can be challenging to assess the answers50.
49 Arthur Hughes, ―Testing for Language Teachers,‖ Second Edi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 75.
50 Hughes,79.
3) Short-answer Items
Tests in listening and reading usually include questions that require the test-taker to give a brief response. The advantages of this test are:
1. Guessing will (or should) have a smaller impact on test scores;
2. Technique is not constrained by the need for distractors (although there must be feasible alternative answers);
3. Cheating is likely to be more challenging.
The disadvantages are:
1. The number of possible items maybe dropped as a result of longer responses;
2. The test taker has to produce words in order to respond;
3. If judgment is necessary, scoring may be invalid or unreliable;
4. It can take longer to score51. 4) Gap Filling Items
The gap filling items are usually in the form of a story or essay.
This test has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of this kind of test are:
1. The problem is solved by employing an objective test form that is embodied is contained in its entirety in its context.
2. The way to prepare it is easy.
Meanwhile the disadvantages are:
51 Hughes, 79.
1. This test only tends to reveal more aspect of introduction.
2. This test only reveals part of the material should be tested52.
In this research, the researcher will use multiple choices for vocabulary test because multiple choices is more familiar for students and in order students do not feel too difficult to answer the test.
e. Speaking and Vocabulary Relationship
Vocabulary is an essential part of learning English and it is necessary in communication. There are some explanation from some experts about the relationship between vocabulary and speaking:
1. According to Brown53, the elements of speaking that the learners have to mastery are grammar, vocabulary, fluency, pronunciation, and comprehension. So, vocabulary is one of essential components of speaking to have conversation effectively.
2. Richards and Renandya54 stated that ―vocabulary is a core component of language proficiency and provides much of the basis for how well learners speak, listen, read, and write‖. Without words, the oral communication will not happen. Therefore, vocabulary has a big role in communication process.
52 Asrul, Rusydi Ananda, and Rosinta, Evaluasi Pembajalaran, Ciptapustaka Media, 2014, 49.
53 Brown, Language Assessment Principles and Classroom Practices, 157.
54 Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002), 255.