CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE RESEARCH
B. Some Partinent Ideas
3. Types of speaking
There are some types of language that we have to know as the teacher of English. According to Brown (2001:250), language teaching is devoted to instruction in mastering English conversation. He divided oral language into two types:
1. Monologue a. Planned b. Unplanned 2. Dialogue a. Interpersonal b. Transactional
The meaning of Monologue is the oral language involves only one people in it. There is only one person who speaks as in lectures, news casting, radio broadcast, etc. monologue can be divided into two types, planned monologue and unplanned monologue. The meaning of planned monologue is the person who speaks use monologue has prepared a note or text to help him
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or her to speak fluently. The meaning of unplanned monologue is the person who speaks in monologue does not use any notes or texts. All words spoken emerge from the speaker‟s mind naturally and spontaneously.
The meaning of dialogue is the oral language involves two or more speaker in it. Based on the function dialogue can be divided into two types, interpersonal and transactional. Interpersonal dialogue is functioned to promote social relationship meanwhile the transactional dialogue is aimed to convey proportional or factual information. In this research, researcher will focus on interpersonal dialogue because it is suitable with the purpose of role play as a simulator for learners in experiencing real atmosphere of daily speaking in society.
4. The Importance of Speaking
Although English has 4 skills, speaking may be the most important skills of English. Mai (cited in Pattison) confirms that when people know or learn a language, they mean being able to speak the language. It means that when someone is acquiring a language, the proof that people want to confirm is when that person can speak the language well, it also happens for English.
Besides, Ur stated that of all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), speaking seems intuitively the most important. It may be true because speaking involve a lot of ability within, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and even accent. In-order to become a well rounded communicator one needs to be proficient in each of the four language skills;
listening, speaking, reading and writing, but the ability to speak skillfully, provides the speaker with several distinct advantages. Syatriana, E., Ardiansyah, A., & Orem, R. (2018) Speaking plays an essential role in the production of a variety of languages, it can be in the form of discussions, speeches, debates, argumentation, conversation, storytelling and retelling”
even in interactive Task-Based Learning for EFL students where The study concludes that although the participants have shown their ability to speak using task- based learning improvement is needed to increase fluency, accuracy, flexibility, comprehensibility appropriately and effectively to make theirs speaking better.
The capacity to express one‟s thoughts, opinions and feelings, in the form of words put together in a meaningful way, provides the speaker with these advantages Therefore, any gap in commutation results in misunderstandings and problems with the person to communicate with because that person does not understand the message uttered by the speaker.
Efrizal (2012) Pourhosein Gilakjani (2016) expressed that speaking is of great significance for the people interaction where they speak everywhere and every day. Speaking is the way of communicating ideas and messages orally. If we want to encourage students to communicate in English, we should use the language in real communication and ask them to do the same process. Richards and Rodgers (2001) stated that in the traditional methods, the speaking skill was ignored in the classrooms where the emphasis was on reading and writing skills. For example, in The Grammar-Translation method,
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reading and writing were the important skills and speaking and listening skills were not of great significance. According to Ur (2000), of all the four language skills called listening, speaking, reading, and writing, speaking is the most important one that is very necessary for the effective communication.
The significance of speaking is indicated with the integration of the other language skills. Speaking helps learners develop their vocabulary and grammar skills and then better their writing skill. Students can express their emotions, ideas; say stories; request; talk, discuss, and show the various functions of language. Speaking is of vital importance outside the classroom.
Therefore, language speakers have more opportunities to find jobs in different organizations and companies. These statements have been supported by Baker and Westrup (2003) who said that learners who speak English very well can have greater chance for better education, finding good jobs, and getting promotion
According to Bueno, Madrid, and Mclaren (2006: 321), “Speaking is one of the most difficult skills language learners have to face. Speaking is considered the most important of the four language skills of English. Even the learners learn the language for so many years; they find it difficult to speak in real time situations when it is demanded. There are many reasons to overcome this. First of all, the ELLs should understand the importance of speaking skills and try to acquire them as they need them to compete in this competitive world.
Among the four basic skills of the English language, speaking seems to be difficult because the speakers have to produce sentences on the spur of the moment. It is quite difficult for foreign or second language learners to produce sentences without learning the grammatical structures and having proper knowledge of adequate vocabulary. Therefore, the English language learners of EFL/ESL face many problems in speaking grammatical sentences in English. Since speaking skills play a dominant role in communication, people try to learn these skills in order to communicate well with the entire community all around the world.
Moreover, these speaking skills are also useful for learners when they have to settle down well in their professions. In the modern world, it has become quite common to prove the candidates‟ talents at the time of their job interviews and many of the selections are based on the performance of the interview. The job aspirants have to participate and prove themselves in debates and group discussions where the performance or oral communication skills of the candidates are primarily measured. Besides, the professionals have to give oral presentations as they have to promote the products or their companies or give training to the other colleagues. Furthermore, an effective speaker can inspire the audience a lot and gain the complete attention of the audience and maintain the same tempo until the end of his/her speech. So the audience involves completely in the speaker‟s speech and they sometimes forget the real world and put their complete concentration on the speech. So,
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speaking skills play a vital role as everything depends on the way how people communicate their messages with others. Rao, Parupalli. (2019) found the importance of speaking as follow as;
1.Interviews 4. Public Speeches
9.Presentations
2.Debates 5. Career Development
3.Group Discussions 6. Sound Business Relationship 7. Higher Confidence Levels 8. Better Job Opportunities Speaking skills are the most essential skills for all the learners who wish to learn English to enhance their career, improve business, build confidence levels, get better job opportunities, make public speeches, attend interviews, participate in debates and group discussions, give presentations and so on. In the present modern world, everything is linked with speaking skills. One who has good talent in speaking can conquer the whole world.
Having good communication is the passport to get better employment opportunities. In the modern interviews, the real talent of the job aspirants is tested through their performance in group discussions, debates, presentation skills and so on. Therefore, job seekers have to acquire good oral communication skills in order to grab better opportunities. Once the learners practice these speaking skills in their EFL/ESL classrooms, they get the mastery of these skills and perform well in the activities in and outside their
classrooms. Let us discuss the purpose of teaching speaking skills in English classrooms.
a. Private Speech
1. Definition of Private Speech
Lantolf (2000) defined private speech as “speech that has social origins in the speech of others but that takes on a private or cognitive function” p.15. In other words, it is a speech that is not for communication;
however, it is originally social.
Lantolf and Thorne (2006) described private speech as an utterance in which the child attempts to self-regulate in the face of complex process of learning. Ohta (2001) defines private speech as “audible speech not adapted to an addressee”.
(Lantolf 2000, p.15). The issue of private speech, as an important phenomenon in language learning and development is an under researched area (Ehrich 2006, p.20). Private speechis defined as “an audible conversation or speech of a child with himself which is neither addressed to another person nor received as such” (Gibrau, 2007 p.42).
From experts statements above the researcher can get a conclusion that private speech is a spoken out loud or process of people to practice then produce the language direct by the self.
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2. Characteristics of Private Speech
The fact that private speech is the internalization of social speech turns it into the most complicated form of speech (Lantolf & Frawley, 1984, cited in Centeno-Cortes & Jimenez Jimenez, 2004). The nature of private speech, contrary to what it seems, is dialogic rather than monologic (Centeno-Cortes
& Jimenez Jimenez, 2004). In the private speech, as argued by Centeno- Cortes and Jimenez Jimenez (2004), not all the information becomes explicit, and words do not need to be fully pronounced, because of the fact that they can be understood by the intention to utter them.
This form reduction is compensatedby semantic richness (Centeno- Cortes & Jimenez Jimenez, 2004). Vygotsky (1986, cited in Centeno-Cortes
& Jimenez Jimenez (2004) distinguishes between the sense of a word and its meaning. Meaning is deco textual while sense is put in the context where the word is produced, “to the extent that the new senses are created every time the word is uttered” (p. 10). “In private speech, sense predominates over meaning, and type deeper underground private speech goes, the more predominance sense has” (Vygotsky, 1986, cited in Centeno-Cortes & Jimenez Jimenez, 2004, p. 10), thus allowing for concluding that in extreme cases, private speech becomes pure sense and, as a consequence, it is situated in a way that if it were to be heard by a person not conversant with that particular situation, it could be completely incomprehensible.
Gholami, Morteza & Salehi, Naser & Azizi, Esmaeel & Fazli, Behtash. (2016) Found that characteristic Private speech among adults It is
obvious that if one averages over numerous young children, a wide range of settings, and various tasks, one understands that preschool-age children are more inclined to show spontaneous, obvious private speech than older ones.
However, it is also obvious that private is not just limited to younger children.
While engaging in challenging issues and problem solving activities older children [31], as well as adolescents [32], and even adults [33] use overt self- talk. Researchers who examined self-talk among adults also found the same micro genetic patterns of internalization during repetition and increased application of private speech in performing more difficult tasks as well as particular tasks over others [33]. The above observations, application of private speech among children, and the similar relationship available between speech and task difficulty among adults and children have raised the question that what these findings mean for Vygotsky‟s theoretical notions of developmental course and the particular contribution of private speech in early childhood. The findings of the research on the role of private speech among young children are consistent with this hypothesis. However, recent data demonstrate that older children as well as adults use private speech periodically in some situations and under some certain tasks. The development strategy show that it is clear that all people use various tools and strategies in cognitive development during problem-solving tasks in which some of these strategies are use more frequently than the others[34]. In addition, a decline of frequency of use of a strategy during completing a task that is probable to occur for a particular activity does not reflect the fact that a
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strategy or behavior would not be appeared in accomplishing a different task [34-36]. Ferny though features the phenomenon of private speech among adults as required as “re-externalization” which depends on contextual, personal stresses, or cognitive challenges [37]. Furrow D.[1992] found that categorizes private speech into 12 functional categories including:
• Instrumental: An utterance that indicates desire or is in the form of a whine; (e.g., “I want it”).
• Regulatory: Referring to an imminent future event. The utterance is directing another person‟s
actions; (e.g., “Go there.”).
• Self-regulatory: Referring to an imminent future event. The child is directing his/her own actions;
(“I put that there.”).
• Attentional: Referring to an ongoing sensory event or a sensory event that is eminent; (e.g.,
“Look”).
• Interactional: Talking to someone else or offering a greeting; (e.g.,
“Hi.”).
• Expressive: Describing an internal state or affect, offering an opinion, or expressing a feeling;
(e.g., “I love you.”).
• Referential: Talking about an object in the immediate surroundings or referring to an event
occurring in the present; (e.g., “That.”).
• Description of one‟s own activity: The utterance refers to an event that is ongoing or an event
that occurred right before the utterance. The event is one in which the child took part; (e.g., “Putting it.”).
• Questions: The syntax of the utterance is in the form of a question or the child‟s inflection
indicates a question; (e.g., “What that?”).
• Imaginary: The utterance is sung, a word play or the child labels/describes an object using
pretend words; (e.g., “That hat.”- referring to a block the child placed on his/her head).
• Informative: Referring to an object or event not in immediate surroundings; (e.g., “Daddy at
work.”).
• Incomprehensible: Utterances that were inaudible [43].
Therefore characteristics of private speech are:
1. The people do interction by theirself to produce language, this means when
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Interaction between themselves or with other people which when it repeated every time will produce a new word for examples;
First example
Student A: going to the right?
Student B: yeah ... three centimeters long Student A: exactly right?
Student B: yes Second example
Student A: now ... now ... our maps are not the same/...but they're almost the same
Student B: almost same/ and .... there are some .... uh ... there isn't ....
something
... in ... in ... my map ... which Student A: which is in my map
Even when the interaction does not explicitly follow the question- answer format, the utterances show a sense of shared knowledge and responsibility between the interlocutors and then produce new words
2. Private speech is monologic, it means only one person, monologic refers to task in which learners are asked to externalized their thingking as they attempt to understand concepts of order of indexcality,- self presentation in the absence of teacher. Example: Satria was given the task of presenting diagrams to improve the English ability of Cambridge University
students. Notes (during the assignments a teacher leaves the classroom and also leaving a video camera digital audio recorder on to record the verbalizations. with the aim that students can externalize their mental activity so they can think broadly critically and feel comfortable).
3. Private speech use simple word when talking about something but the information are informative. The Informative Referring to an object or event not in immediate surroundings for example : “daddy at work”
3. Functions of Private Speech
In a study examining private speech acts in intermediate and advanced Spanish learners, Frawley and Lantolf (1985) found an inverse correlation between communicative proficiency and private speech. The less private speech learners used, the greater their communicative competence because a decrease in the need for an interlocutor to facilitate understanding. Speech utterances can be divided into two classes: social speech and private speech (Winsler et al., 2005). While social speech is used for speech acts between individuals, private speech is language, “we use when we are talking to ourselves, not expecting anyone to hear or respond” (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 203). There is a straightforward set of criterion that teachers and researchers can apply when determining the classification of a speech act as either social or private.
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It is argued by Lantolf (2006) that private speech is responsible for both regulating mental ability in complex tasks and facilitating internalization of mental ability. Winsler et al (2005) further report the following three functions of private speech identified by Furrow (1992):
1. Self-regulatory
In self regulatory, the learner can organize what they want to say in social environment. For example in classroom when the students learn about dialog transactional so the learner can control theirself to talk only about the topic.
2. information seeking
In this case the learner looking for references to get the information about what the learner want to say. So when the learner speak, they can speak very well with accurate information.
3. Informative
In this case when the learner speak, the content by the learner give benefits or new knowledge for other studets..
4. Types of Private Speech
Ohta (2001, cited in Mitchell & Myles, 2004) identifies three types of private speech:
a. Repetation
The first type of private speech is repetation. In repetation, the learners privately repeat what teacher and another students said. In this case must do repetation in second language. This type of practice is argued by Mitchell and Myles (2004) to be the most common practice with the newly lexical items being taught in the second language or with sentences that are the focus of class attention.
b. Vicarious Responses
The second type of private speech is vicarious responses. In vicarious responses the learners privately respond to questions from teacher or utterance by someone which is repaired or completed.
c. Manipulation
The third type of private speech is manipulation. In manipulation the learners privately construct their own language utterance, “manipulating sentence structure, building up and breaking down word, and engaging in sound play” (p. 205).
Centeno-Cortes and Jimenez Jimenez (2004) also introduce private verbal thinking (PVT) as a type of private speech. They define private verbal thinking as “a particular type of private speech that surfaces during the reasoning process as a tool used in resolution of problem-solving tasks‟ (p. 8).
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B. Conceptual Framework
Referring from all previous statements above which related to The Analysis of private speech on students‟ speaking skills in speaking class, below is presenting conceptual framework. This part gives explanation about the scheme of this research. It is described by the following Figure 2.1:
Figure 2.1: The Conceptual Framework
The figure 2.1 above describe about aims of this research. In this case the researcher want to get the analysis how the students‟ english vocabulary achievement in using private speech in speaking class at the third semester of Unismuh Makassar and what are the students‟ reasons in using private speech on students speaking skills in terms of accuracy in speaking class at the third semester of Unismuh Makassar.
Accuracy (vocabulary)
Private Speech Speaking
Skills
Students‟ English accuracy in vocabulary
Achievement
Students‟ reasons in using Private Speech