Aplikasi Hubungan Uang dan Waktu:
Evaluasi Alternatif
Prinsip Dasar Hubungan Uang dan
Waktu
Menentukan Tingkat Keuntungan
Ekonomis
Metode Evaluasi
Metode Nilai Ekivalen
Metode Laju Pengembalian Internal
Metode Periode Pengembalian
SETELAH UTSMetode Nilai Ekivalen
• Metode nilai sekarang (present worth, PW)
• Metode nilai masa depan (future worth, FW)
• Metode nilai tahunan (annual worth, AW)
Dilakukan dengan mengkonversi semua aliran kas (cash flows) dari alternatif investasi ke dalam nilai ekivalennya pada suatu titik acuan waktu tertentu, dengan tingkat pengembalian tertentu yang disebut tingkat pengembalian minimum yang menguntungkan (minimum attractive rate of return, MARR).
parameter penetuan alternatif: nilai ekivalennya evaluasi ekonomi berdasarkan arus kas
Metode Laju Pengembalian Internal ( internal rate of return, IRR )
Menentukan tingkat pengembalian yang dihasilkan dari investasi dan membandingkannya dengan MARR.
Metode Periode Pengembalian ( payback period )
Menunjukkan seberapa cepat suatu investasi dapat terbayar oleh pemasukan yang dihasilkannya.
Minimum Attractive Rate of Return (MARR)
• Ditentukan oleh investor
• Beberapa hal yang menjadi pertimbangan dalam menentukan MARR, antara lain:
• Jumlah dan sumber uang yang tersedia untuk investasi.
• Jumlah dan tujuan proyek yang tersedia untuk investasi.
• Besarnya risiko yang terkait dengan investasi dan perkiraan biaya pengelolaan proyek.
• Jenis organisasi yang terlibat.
semakin besar resiko, semakin besar MARR
WACC (Weighted Average Cost of Capital)
•
Biaya modal tertimbang dari berbagai sumber modal sesuai dengan komposisi masing-masing.
•
E= nilai pasar dari equity
•
D= nilai pasar dari pinjaman
•
r
e= biaya equity
•
r
d= biaya pinjaman
•
t = tingkat pajak perusahaan
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝐸𝐸
𝐸𝐸 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 + 𝐷𝐷
𝐸𝐸 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑟𝑟𝐷𝐷 1 − 𝑡𝑡
salah satu parameter yang bisa digunakkan u/ menentukan MARR
equity = dana dari kantong sendiri
, ini jg fungsi dari project
semikin tinggi risiko, tingkat pajak akan ...
Nilai MARR pada awalnya disamakan dengan WACC, tapi ini belum Attractive, maka MARR akhir akan: WACC + nilai tertentu (ada standarnya
Metode PW
• Metode PW mengubah semua aliran kas menjadi suatu nilai
ekivalennya pada saat ini (awal periode), pada tingkat pengembalian (bunga) yang (umumnya) sama dengan MARR.
• Nilai PW positif dari suatu investasi adalah jumlah keuntungan yang diperoleh investor.
• PW sebagai fungsi i% (per periode bunga) dari sederet aliran kas dirumuskan sebagai berikut:
• Asumsi yang digunakan adalah tingkat bunga konstan selama proyek berlangsung.
( )
kN
k Fk i
i PW
−
∑
= +=
0
1
%) (
i = MARR (diasumsikan tingkat bunga konstan selama proyek berlangsung
Contoh
Para insinyur di suatu perusahaan manufaktur mengusulkan untuk membeli alat baru untuk meningkatkan produktivitas operasi
pengelasan. Biaya investasi yang dibutuhkan adalah $25,000 dan nilai sisa peralatan pada akhir periode studi 5 tahun adalah $5,000.
Peningkatan keuntungan (pendapatan - biaya) karena penggunaan peralatan adalah $8,000 per tahun. Jika perusahaan menetapkan MARR (sebelum pajak) sebesar 20% per tahun, dapatkah usulan tersebut diterima?
PW = PW aliran kas masuk – PW aliran kas keluar
PW (20%) = $8,000(P/A,20%,5) + $5,000(P/F,20%,5) - $25,000
= $934.29
Karena PW(20%) > 0, peralatan yang diusulkan dinilai ekonomis
tahun
1 2 3 4 5
$8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000
$5,000
$25,000
i = 20%/th
Metode FW
• Metode nilai masa depan didasarkan pada nilai ekivalen semua
aliran kas masuk dan keluar pada akhir periode studi dengan tingkat pengembalian (bunga) sama dengan (umumnya) MARR.
• Jika suatu proyek mempunyai nilai FW ≥ 0, maka proyek tersebut dinilai ekonomis
( )
N kN
k Fk i
i
FW −
∑= +
= 0 1
%) (
SOAL
• Soal 1
•
Hitunglah nilai P untuk diagram berikut ini:
• Soal 2
•
Seorang pabrikan sedang mempertimbangkan untuk membeli peralatan yang akan memberikan efek finansial berikut:
•
Jika digunakan tingkat bunga 6%, apakah dia harus
berinvestasi pada peralatan ini? Gunakan metode PW atau Net Present Value (NPV).
Tahun Pengeluaran ($) Penerimaan ($)
0 4,400 0
1 660 880
2 660 1980
3 440 2420
4 220 1760
SOAL
COMPARING ALTERNATIVES
Comparing Alternatives
•
Part of Engineering Economy is the selection and execution of the best alternative from among a set of feasible alternatives
•
Alternatives must be generated from within the organization
One of the roles of engineers!
•
In part, the role of the engineer to properly evaluate alternatives from a technical and economic view
•
Must generate a set of feasible alternatives to solve a specific problem/concern
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Two types of investment categories:
• Mutually Exclusive Set
• Independent Project Set
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Mutually Exclusive Alternatives
•
Mutually Exclusive set is where a candidate set of alternatives exist (more than one)
•
Objective: Pick one and only one from the set
•
Once selected, the remaining alternatives are excluded
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Independent Project Set
• Given a set of alternatives (more than one)
• The objective is to:
• Select the best possible combination of projects from the set that will optimize a given criteria
• Subjects to constraints
• More difficult problem than the mutually exclusive approach
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
yg membataasi hanya ketersediaan dana
Type of Alternatives
•
Revenue/Cost – the alternatives consist of cash inflow and cash outflows (alternatif investasi)
• Select the alternative with the maximum economic value
•
Service – the alternatives consist mainly of cost elements
(alternatif biaya)• Select the alternative with the minimum economic value (min. cost alternative)
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
dominan arus kas biaya (angkanya akan negatif)
Methods
• Metode Nilai Ekivalen (PW / AW Method)
• Metode Tingkat Pengembalian (IRR Method)
METODE NILAI EKIVALEN
PRESENT WORTH --- Equal Lives Alternatives
• Compute the Present Worth of each alternative and select the best
i.e., smallest if cost and largest if profit
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Example
Consider: Machine
AMachine B
First Cost $2,500 $3,500
Annual Operating Cost 900 700
Salvage Value 200 350
Life 5 years 5 years
i = 10% per year
Which alternative should we select?
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
(nilai sisa)
Cash Flow Diagram
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
0 1 2 3 4 5
$2,500 A = $900
F5=$200 MA
0 1 2 3 4 5
$3,500
F5=$350
A = $700 MB
Solving
P
A= 2,500 + 900 (P|A, .10, 5) – 200 (P|F, .01, 5)
= 2,500 + 900 (3.7908) - 200 (.6209)
= 2,500 + 3,411.72 - 124.18 = $5,788
P
B= 3,500 + 700 (P|A, .10, 5) – 350 (P|F, .10, 5)
= 3,500 + 2,653.56 - 217.31 = $5,936 SELECT MACHINE A : Lower PW cost!
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
PRESENT WORTH --- Different Lives Alternatives
• Comparison must be made over equal time periods
Compare over the least common multiple, LCM, for their lives
• Remember – if the lives of the alternatives are not equal, one must create or force a study period where the life is the same for all of the alternatives
• If the alternatives have different study periods, you find the lowest common life for all of the alternatives in
question
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Example
Machine A Machine B
First Cost $11,000 $18,000
Annual Operating Cost 3,500 3,100 Salvage Value 1,000 2,000
Life 6 years 9 years
i = 15% per year
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Cash Flow Diagram
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
i = 15% per year
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
$11,000
F6=$1,000
A 1-6=$3,500
Machine A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
F6=$2,000
A 1-9=$3,100
$18,000
Machine B
LCM(6,9) = 18 year study period will apply for present worth
cari kpk, dan ulang yg umurnya lebih sedikit secara identik
ulang 2x ulang 3x
Cash Flow Diagram
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
i = 15% per year Machine A
LCM(6,9) = 18 year study period will apply for present worth
Cycle 1 for A Cycle 2 for A Cycle 3 for A
6 years 6 years 6 years
Cycle 1 for B Cycle 2 for B
18 years
9 years 9 years
Machine B
Solving
Calculate the present worth of a 6-year cycle for A
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
PA = 11,000 + 3,500 (P|A, .15, 6) – 1,000 (P|F, .15, 6)
= 11,000 + 3,500 (3.7845) – 1,000 (.4323)
= $23,813, which occurs at time 0, 6 and 12
0 6 12 18
$23,813 $23,813 $23,813
PA= 23,813+23,813 (P|F, .15, 6)+ 23,813 (P|F, .15, 12)
= 23,813 + 10,294 + 4,451 = 38,558
Calculate the Present Worth of a 9-year cycle for B PB = 18,000+3,100(P|A, .15, 9) – 1,000(P|F, .15, 9)
= 18,000 + 3,100(4.7716) - 2,000(.2843)
= $32,508 which occurs at time 0 and 9
0 9 18
$32,508 $32,508
PB = 32,508 + 32,508 (P|F, .15, 9)
= 32,508 + 32,508(.2843) PB = $41,750
Choose Machine A
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Different Lives Alternatives --- Study Period Approach
• Alternative: 1 with a 5-year life
• Alternative: 2 with a 7-year life
• LCM = 35 years ?
• Could assumed study period of, 5 years
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Alt-1: N = 5 yrs
Alt-2: N= 7 yrs
•
Assume a 5-yr. study period
•
Estimate a salvage value for the 7-year project at the end of t = 5
•
Truncate the 7-yr project to 5 years
IMV method•
Now, evaluate both over 5 years using the PW method!
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Alt-1: N = 5 yrs
Alt-2: N= 7 yrs yg umur lebih panjang dipitong mengikuti yg lebih pendek
IMV (Imputed Market Value)
• MVT = market value at T, T<U
• U = useful life
• present value (evaluated at time T) of the total loss of the asset value during the period [T, U] and the present value (evaluated at time T) of the salvage value of the asset at time U.
*kadang nilainya tidak representatif dgn keadaal asli, sehingga sebaiknya tdk digunakkan
CAPITALIZED COST
• CAPITALIZED COST--- the present worth of a project that lasts forever
• Exp: Government Projects, Roads, Dams, Bridges, etc.
• Infinite analysis period
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
1 A
P A i i
= =
(1 ) 1 , let N (1 )
(1 ) 1 1
lim (1 )
N N
N
N N
P A i
i i
i
i i i
→∞
+ −
= + → ∞
+ −
+ =
CAPITALIZED COST
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.
Assume you are called on to maintain a cemetery site
forever, if the interest rate = 4% and $50/year is required to maintain the site, Find the PW of an infinite annuity flow!
1 2 3 4 5 .. N=inf.
A=$50/yr
P = ?
………..
CAPITALIZED COST
• P
0= $50[1/0.04]
• P
0= $50[25] = $1,250.00
• Invest $1,250 into an account that earns 4% per year will yield $50 of interest forever if the fund is not touched and the i-rate stays constant.
Blank & Tarquin: 5th Edition. Ch. 5 Authored By: Dr. Don Smith, Texas A&M University.