22A.2 Physical goods derived from metals and minerals in the USA A.3 Physical goods derived from renewable organic forests and agriculture 282. This is probably the place to state my personal regret that several of the pioneers of industrial ecology are not adequately represented are in this section, except as they appear in the quotations at the end.
Industrial ecology: goals and de fi nitions
Reid Lifset and Thomas E. Graedel
DEFINING INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY
For example, the study of anthropogenic disturbances of the nitrogen cycle is an important contribution of industrial ecology (Ayres, Schlesinger and Socolow 1994). Also striking is the connection between this question and the focus of industrial ecology on the role of the company and the opportunities offered by technological innovation.
THE GOALS OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY
In this frame, many of the conceptual and interdisciplinary aspects of the field make up the left side of the figure, while the more practical and applied aspects appear on the right. But on the other hand, the field often gives advice of the "if the target is x, then y is the right choice."
THE BOUNDARIES OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY
At the same time, much of the practical work in eco-design and life-cycle management is aimed at more modest changes in product design protocols, material selection, inter-firm relations or environmental policy. Ultimately, it will be the productivity of the different approaches in generating conceptual insights and practical knowledge that will determine their acceptance3.
CONCLUSION
Or does their intellectual and organizational separation inevitably mean that modular research will be impoverished, unable to integrate, or even fundamentally misleading (Lifset 1998b). Put more simply, the questions that industrial ecology seeks to answer must be pursued on an interdisciplinary basis to provide reliable answers.
NOTES
Marina Fischer-Kowalski
METABOLISM IN BIOLOGY, AGRONOMY AND ECOLOGY
Justus Liebig then extended the use of the term to the context of tissue breakdown combined with the somewhat mystical notion of 'life force' (Liebig. These issues are controversial in biology, so the use of the term 'metabolism' for a system consisting of a multitude of organisms is not without challenges .
METABOLISM IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Ostwald was one of the few scientists of his time who was sensitive to the limitations of fossil resources. He was not, as the participants of the conference note, worried about the depletion of mineral resources.
THE PIONEERS OF ECONOMY-WIDE MATERIALS FLOW ANALYSIS IN THE LATE 1960S
Objects pass from the non-economic to the economic set during the production process, and objects leave the economic set "when their value becomes zero" (ibid., p. 5). In the cowboy economy, throughput is at least a plausible measure of the economy's success.
Suren Erkman*
INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY: EARLIER ATTEMPTS
One of his closest collaborators at the time was none other than Robert Frosch, who, thanks to an article published in 1989 in the monthly magazine Scientific American, would make a decisive contribution to the revival of the concept of industrial ecology. Efforts to reduce waste were sometimes made in a systematic manner, as in the case of the Committee on Elimination of Waste in Industry of the Federated American Engineering Societies in the early 1920s (CEWI 1921; Hays 1959; Haber 1964).
THE ‘BELGIUM ECOSYSTEM’
The economic opening of the Belgian system leads to the ecological opening of material cycles. For example, the current organization of the food chain causes surface water degradation.
THE JAPANESE VIEW
The Industrial Structure Council's final report, entitled 'A Vision for the 1970s', was made public in May 1971. Following the report's recommendations, MITI immediately set up about 15 working groups.
A NEW DEPARTURE WITH SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
Although the ideas presented in Frosch and Gallopoulos' article were not, strictly speaking, original, the Scientific American article can be seen as the source of the current development of industrial ecology. Technology and the Environment', already contained many of the ideas that developed in the direction of industrial ecology, and was followed by a number of volumes on industrial ecology (Ausubel and Sladovich 1989; Allenby and Richards 1994; Richards and Frosch; . 1994 ; Schulze 1996; Richards 1997; Richards and Pearson 1998).
REACHING THE BUSINESS AND ACADEMIC COMMUNITIES
Finally, in 1997, eight years after Frosch and Gallopoulos' seminal paper, the first issue of the Journal of Industrial Ecology (owned by Yale University and published by The MIT Press) was published. The launch of this journal can be seen as a formal recognition by the academic community of the 'new' field of industrial ecology, which is now being pursued with unprecedented vigour.
Tim Jackson
A BRIEF HISTORY OF CLEANER PRODUCTION
PRINCIPLES OF CLEANER PRODUCTION
Preventive environmental management is also distinct from end-of-pipe environmental management which attempts to "prevent" the release of certain pollutants into a given environmental medium by placing some sort of filter or treatment between the release and the environment. Cleaner manufacturing tries to get around this problem by focusing on all material streams instead of selected ones.
OPERATIONAL PATHWAYS TO CLEANER PRODUCTION
For example, it is clearly in the commercial interest of industry to pursue material efficiency at the process level. As Ayres (1993b) makes clear, cleaner production at the process technology level is not enough.
CLEANER PRODUCTION V. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY
Ironically, process efficiencies can sometimes even lead to a reduction in material efficiencies at the product level. Cleaner production can thus be seen as a fairly broad set of actions that certainly go beyond technological measures to reduce waste emissions from industrial production processes.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Much of the early emphasis of the UNEP cleaner manufacturing program was on process technology. According to this interpretation of the term, cleaner production owed much to the earlier concept of pollution prevention (USOTA 1987; Hirschhorn and Oldenburg 1991).
Robert U. Ayres *
RETURNS TO SCALE AND SCOPE
The economies of scale are diluted in the case of mechanical or electrical products, which evolve and improve over time. Economies of scale are most obvious (and easiest to analyze econometrically) in the case of homogeneous commodities such as steel, petrochemicals or electric power.
RETURNS TO SYSTEMS INTEGRATION
Aniline was the raw material for most synthetic organic dyes, the first important product of the German chemical industry. There are few chemical uses for lignins, but no more than a few percent of the available resource is used productively except as a low-grade fuel for use in the pulp/paper mills.
INTEGRATED INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
OTHER POSSIBLE INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
The condensibles would be separated as liquid propane gas (LPG) for domestic use (150 kMT/year). The phenolic water would be processed to recover phenols (13kMT/year), cresols (27kMT/year) and xylols (26kMT/year).
CONCLUDING COMMENTS
Too much depends on very sensitive and continuous adjustments between the various components of the system. The basic idea is to transform an existing, traditional industrial park – the Burnside Industrial Park in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia – into an industrial ecosystem.
Braden R. Allenby
Finally, the theoretical foundations on which robust industrial ecology policy structures could be based do not yet exist. The theory of technological evolution is underdeveloped (Grübler 1998), management systems that are adaptive enough to manage complex resource systems effectively do not exist (Gunderson et al. 1995; Berkes and Folke 1998), and the challenge of engineering and managing terrestrial systems (see Chapter 46; also Allenby 1999b) is one of which people are just becoming aware.
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE SYSTEMS
Indeed, the outlines of a new, more complex, international governance system are emerging, and it is important that the industrial ecologist is comfortable with this development. One important facet of this change in global governance structure is that it does not lead to a world that is more homogeneous.
GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE AND CULTURE
Globalization', whether cultural, economic or institutional, is indeed a powerful current trend, but it is not necessarily a simplifying trend. It is not a case of 'either globalization or localization'; instead, global and local economic and cultural interests develop simultaneously.
LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS
Given the behavior of the emitted substances and the resulting global scale of impact, this is appropriate. It is indicative of the legal challenges that industrial ecology raises and must address.
Allan Johansson
THE VALUE OF METAPHORS
Examples of the creative impact of metaphors in science are numerous, although they are often disputed or refuted as later dramatization (Johnson-Sheehan 1997). A classic example, and perhaps one of the most successful, is given by Sadi Carnot, the young French engineer.
THE USE OF METAPHORS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
Perhaps because of the nature of the matter, but also sometimes because of hidden ambitions, this is an area where the hidden message of the metaphor can be particularly misleading. Lovelock's 'Gaia' metaphor is a more recent and more deliberate example of the double-edged nature of metaphors in science (Lovelock.
THE HIDDEN MESSAGE OF METAPHORS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Material fl ow analysis
Stefan Bringezu and Yuichi Moriguchi
An increase in eco-efficiency is now considered essential by the environment ministers of the European Union (1999). For the environment, however, the reduction of the absolute effects of material flows is essential.
TYPES OF ANALYSIS
Review of the Fifth (Environmental) Action Program (Decision No. 2179/98/EC) emphasizes resource use and efficiency. The metabolism of the old industrialized German Ruhr was studied by Bringezu and Schütz (1996b).
USE OF MATERIAL FLOW-RELATED ANALYSES
The main importance lies in the general characterization of the metabolic performance of the studied entities, to understand the volume, structure and quality of throughput and to assess the status and trend with respect to sustainability. Nevertheless, all of these analyzes use the accounting of material inputs and outputs of processes in a quantitative way, and many of them take a system or chain perspective.
PROCEDURE AND ELEMENTS OF THE ANALYSIS
ECONOMY-WIDE MFA
ATTRIBUTION TO SECTORS, ACTIVITIES AND FUNCTIONS
MFA-BASED INDICATORS
Substance fl ow analysis methodology
Ester van der Voet
GENERAL FRAMEWORK
SYSTEM DEFINITION
This subsystem contains stocks and flows in the environment that can be described as bioavailable. The SFA method combines economic and environmental flows into a single system, so that a substance can be traced from the (economic) cradle to the (environmental) grave.
QUANTIFICATION OF THE OVERVIEW OF FLOWS AND STOCKS
In this way, inflows and outflows are balanced for each node as well as for the system as a whole, unless accumulation within the system can be demonstrated. In the case of static modeling, the process network is translated into a set of linear equations that describe flows and accumulations as dependent on each other.
THE INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS FOR POLICY MAKERS
Many publications have been devoted to the importance of studying social metabolism since the publication of the concept of industrial metabolism by Ayres (1989a) and the political awareness of the role of societal flows and supplies as the instigators of environmental problems is slowly growing in the effects of policy principles such as 'integrated chain management' (Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment 1991). Terminology is always a difficult issue in a relatively new research area such as SFA. Indicators are widely used by policy makers to measure developments in the state of the environment, human influence on the environment and the effectiveness of chosen policy measures.
FINAL REMARKS
This moves towards the study of biogeochemical cycles and their transformation by human activity into anthropo-biogeochemical cycles. The conclusions to be drawn should fall within the preconditions of SFA and therefore necessarily be limited to the life cycle of the substance under investigation.
Gunter Strassert
CONCEPT OF A PHYSICAL INPUT–OUTPUT TABLE
The direct input from nature can be in gaseous, Table 10.1(a) Components of the input side of a PIOT. intermediate). Since these final outputs cross the boundary of the economic production system back to the environment, one can speak of quasi-exports.
CONCLUSION: DEFICIENCIES OF THE MATERIAL TRANSFORMATION SYSTEM
In an actual and revised version of the German PIOT, the primary input component includes two corresponding water categories. In an early version of the German PIOT with nine activities there was also a comparably high degree of linearity, nevertheless some circuits could be identified (see Strassert 2000a, p. 325).
Urmila Diwekar and Mitchell J. Small
It is the purpose of this chapter to present an overview of the state of the art of process simulation and optimization methods needed to develop a process modeling approach to industrial ecology. A multi-objective approach to design under uncertainty is proposed to begin to address these assessment challenges.
PROCESS SIMULATION: AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
The simultaneous modular approach uses individual modules for each unit operation and process, as in the sequential modular approach, but attempts to provide a more direct link between the inputs, outputs, and operations of these individual modules. However, as shown in Table 11.1, much work has been done in recent years to develop and distribute comparison-oriented packages.
THERMODYNAMIC AND OTHER CONSTRAINTS
For example, effects of pollutants released to different media are not differentiated in the WAR algorithm. Recently, the WAR algorithm was added to the ASPEN simulator to enable consideration of the eight environmental impacts shown in Table 11.3.
ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS: A MULTI- OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM
Although this is only an initial exploration of the design space, the results in Figure 11-5 show that profit does not conflict with environmental criteria in all cases and that an optimal design can be found that effectively meets both economic and environmental objectives. This is due to the non-convex nature of the objective surface for the HDA process.
The analysis presented so far has been deterministic: it is assumed that the relationships between system design and economic and environmental performance are known and modeled with certainty. Methods for dealing with uncertainty in process simulation, design, and optimization are discussed in the next section as the next major challenge for implementing efficient, environmentally friendly process design.
A MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION FRAMEWORK UNDER UNCERTAINTY
Uncertainty of two orders of magnitude in environmental impacts is not unusual given the highly diverse and aggregated nature of the environmental indices considered. For illustration, we choose the mean value of each potential environmental impact to include as part of the objective function.
CONCLUSIONS
Helias A. Udo de Haes
A SHORT HISTORY OF LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT
The results obtained varied widely, although the subjects of the study were often the same, which prevented LCA from becoming a more widely accepted and useful analytical tool. Under the coordination of the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), efforts were started to harmonize the methodology (cf.
DEFINITION AND APPLICATIONS
There will therefore generally be a great need for an input by the main stakeholders in the process, and there will be a need for an independent peer review of the results of an LCA study. While the eco-labelling programs in general have not met their expectations, the use in the other types of applications shows a consistent increase over recent years (Frankl and Rubik 2000).
TECHNICAL FRAMEWORK
During this phase, the results are related to the purpose of the study as defined at the beginning. It is the choice of the model parameters, and the different ways of dealing with uncertainty.
THE CHOICE OF THE MODEL PARAMETERS
This may also lead to a new round of data collection if the aim of the study appears not to have been satisfactorily achieved. A third point related to the choice of model parameters concerns the level of the cause-and-effect network at which they should be determined.
HOW TO DEAL WITH UNCERTAINTY?
For each element of an indicator's uncertainty, the probability of different possible values is assessed. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is one of the most important approaches in the field of industrial ecology.
Bengt Steen
The objective of an LCA can vary, but for the most part the LCIA is intended to be used – sooner or later – in a choice between two products or processes. The quantitative indicators, called 'category indicators' in LCA and 'impact indicators' in many other methods, define the qualitative system boundaries of the 'environment' we are studying.
SELECTION OF IMPACT INDICATORS
The "precautionary principle" is often used in impact assessment, and it works well with the "fairness" type of trade-off, but for a utilitarian approach, margins of safety in one type of impact tend to diminish the assessment of other impacts. In the LCIA standard (ISO 14042) (ISO 2000), the selection of impact categories and category indicators must be consistent with the objective and scope, justified and reflect a comprehensive set of environmental issues related to the product system under investigation.
MODELING OR RECOGNIZING INTERACTIONS BETWEEN TECHNICAL SYSTEM INDICATORS AND IMPACT
It is also recommended that value choices and assumptions made during the selection of impact categories and category indicators are minimized. The selection of category indicators at the same level in the cause-effect chains can help avoid double counting.
INDICATORS
Further, it is recommended that the indicators be internationally accepted, represent the aggregated emissions or resource use of the product system at the category endpoints, avoid double counting and be environmentally relevant. LCIA characterization models can be of three types: (a) mechanistic (Figure 13.2), including dispersion and dose response; (b) empirically based, including statistically significant correlations between a pollutant and its effect; or (c) of some kind of equivalent, such as acidification potential.
COMPARING DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMPACTS AND EVALUATION OF TOTAL IMPACT
For a single emission the uncertainty can be large, but when used for the evaluation of large technical systems the uncertainties tend to decrease due to averaging. However, if weight is considered as a comparison of the overall outcome with different general environmental objectives and public preferences, it may be less controversial (Bengtsson and Steen 2000).
ANALYSIS OF UNCERTAINTY AND SENSITIVITY
Once an impact evaluation model has been established, the sensitivity of each of the outcomes to each of the inputs can be calculated. Suppose, for example, that the sensitivity of an impact assessment turns out to be much greater for emissions from the US than from Luxembourg.
DATA DOCUMENTATION AND REPORTING
For practical reasons, it is preferable to be able to store "ready" information. Activity information is stored in the life cycle inventory database, as is general flow information.
DISCUSSION
A consequence assessment or evaluation of the impact is carried out by selecting and combining indicators, characterization factors and weighting factors for a given type of emission or resource flow. Weighting method Description of the method used to find one or a set of weighting factors.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The quality assurance described in the ISO 14000 series is only an assurance of the procedures, not of the result. Most of the interventions that have been registered have been registered because they 'may' have some impact on the environment.
Peter Bartelmus
ASSESSING SUSTAINABILITY: A PROLIFERATION OF APPROACHES
Most environmentalists and even some ecological economists, on the other hand, reject the "commoditization" and pricing of the environment. But policy makers prefer highly aggregated indices to get a picture of the forest rather than looking at individual trees.
PHYSICAL AND MONETARY ACCOUNTING
No wonder that hardly comparable indicators of quality of life (Henderson, Lickerman and Flynn 2000), sustainable development (United Nations 1996a), human development (UNDP 1999), real progress (Cobb, Halstead and Rowe 1995), increased prosperity (World Bank 1997), ecological footprints (Wackernagel and Rees 1996) or environmental sustainability (Yale University et al. 2000) have increased dramatically. This chapter discusses some advantages and disadvantages of two widely used physical and monetary approaches, with a view to coupling or combining them.
COMMONALITIES AND DIFFERENCES
Environmental components are added by including environmental assets and asset changes in the shaded vertical column of the asset accounts. They refer to ultimate welfare effects (ie damage) of environmental effects that are inconsistent with the pricing and costing of the national accounts and are virtually impossible to trace back to the perpetrators.
RESULTS AND POLICY ANALYSIS
Materials fl ow analysis and economic modeling
Karin Ibenholt
It is also important to remember that a model is necessarily a description of a limited aspect of a society. The more complicated the model, the more difficult it will be to interpret the results and to determine how different effects are related.
ECONOMIC MODELING
The ORANI CGE model developed for Australia can be seen as an elaboration of the MSG model, see Dixon et al. Introduction to and overviews of the methods and theories developed in AGE and CGE modeling can be found in Fullerton et al.
INTEGRATED ECONOMY–ENVIRONMENT MODELS
Criticism ranges from the need to further extend and develop GE models, as in Walker (1997), to a more fundamental critique of the underlying theory, particularly the lack of an endogenous theory of technological progress and the implausibility of growth in a state of equilibrium static.
MODELS INTEGRATING MATERIAL FLOWS AND ECONOMIC CONCERNS
