A DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF COHESION IN ESSAY WRITING MADE BY THE SEVENTH SEMESTER STUDENTS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF MAKASSAR MUHAMMADIYAH UNIVERSITY
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty of Teachers Training and Education of Makassar Muhammadiyah University in Part Fulfillment of the Requirement
for the Degree of Education in English Department
ISLAHUDDIN KARIM 10535 4552 10
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION MAKASSAR MUHAMMADIYAH UNIVERSITY
2016
ABSTRACT
ISLAHUDDIN KARIM, 2016. A Discourse Analysis of Cohesion in Essay Writing Made by the Seventh Semester Students of English Education Department of Makassar Muhammadiyah University, under the thesis of English Education Department, the Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Muhammadiyah University of Makassar, guided by H. M. Basri Dalle and Yassir Mallapiang.
The objective of this research is to find out the types of cohesion that are used by the students in essay writing and this is also to state the frequency of occurrence of cohesion in the essay writing written by the seventh semester students of English education department, Muhammadiyah University of Makassar.
A descriptive research was employed in attempt to gain the purpose of this study. To collect the data, the researcher took 30 essays writing from the students.
Every sample was marked with number code. Next, every essay consists of T- units. The T-unit was used to make the analysis become easier. Every single T- unit was analyzed to identify types of cohesion. Then, every cohesion types put into the table based on its category.
The findings of the research data showed that there were 13 types of cohesion used by the students in their essay writing. The 13 types of cohesion were lexical cohesion same item (L1), additive conjunction (C1), pronominal reference (R1), demonstrative reference (R2), causal conjunction (C3), adversative conjunction (C2), comparative reference (R3), temporal conjunction (C4), lexical cohesion general item (L4), lexical cohesion synonym (L2), nominal substitution (S1), verbal substitution (S2), and nominal ellipsis (E1). The second result was the frequency of occurrence of cohesion. The frequency of occurrence of cohesion can be divided into three categories. The first category is high category which occur in four types of cohesion whose occurrence range from 25.12% to 18.22% per T-unit. The second category is middle category which occur in four types of cohesion that occurred from 4.81% to 2.16% per T-unit.
The third category is low category. In this category there are five types of cohesion which occur from 0.73% to 0.04%. The occurrence of all the types of cohesion in the essay writing written by the seventh semester students of English education department, Makassar Muhammadiyah University was 0.16% per T- unit. Having analyzed the data, it can be stated that from the 18 types of cohesion, there were 13 types of cohesion used by the 30 students in their essays. The other types of cohesion can be found from every essays written by the students, even though they occurred sometimes or even hardly ever. Besides, the frequency of occurrence of each types of cohesion was different. It showed that the students’
ability in using cohesion types were still low.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
Alhamdullilah Robbil ‘Alamin, the writer is grateful for all the bounties that Allah S.W.T who has given guidance, mercy, and good health, so the writer had opportunity to complete this thesis. Shalawat and Salam are addressed to the final chosen religious messenger, the Prophet Muhammad SAW who has changed the human life.
The writer realizes that in carrying out the research and writing this thesis, many people have contributed their valuable suggestion, guidance, assistance, and advice for the completion of this thesis. Therefore, the writer would like to express his appreciation and sincere thanks to all of them particularly:
1. Dr. H. Abd. Rahman Rahim, SE., MM, the Rector of the Makassar Muhammadiyah University.
2. Dr. Andi Syukri Syamsuri, M.Hum, the Dean of Faculty of Teachers Training and Education of Makassar Muhammadiyah University.
3. Erwin Akib, M.Pd., Ph.D the Head of English Education Department of Faculty of Teachers Training and Education of Makassar Muhammadiyah University.
4. My high appreciation and great thankful are due to consultant Prof. Dr. H.
Muhammad Basri Dalle, M.S. and Yassir Mallapiang, S.S., M.Pd for their invaluable assistance continual and unwavering encouragements, patience, and perseverance in guiding me to finish this thesis.
5. My deepest thank to all lectures of the FKIP UNISMUH especially to the lectures of English Department and all staff of Muhammadiyah university of Makassar for their guidance during the years of the writer’s study.
6. The writer would like to express the deepest thanks to his family for their unfailing love, continual understanding, sacrifice, prayers and support. My beloved parents Abdul Karim as my father and Sitti Saadiah as my mother.
7. Thanks to Andi Nita Purnama, S.Pd who has given her time, support, guidelines, and patient, especially during the writer arranging this thesis.
Finally, the writer offers thanks and apperception to everybody who had help in finishing this thesis. My almighty Allah SWT blesses us all.
Billahifisabilil Haq Fastabiqul Khairat
Makassar, August 2016 The Writer
Islahuddin Karim
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background
Human as social creature needs interaction with their circumstances to survive in their lives. To interact, human needs language as an instrument to deliver their ideas and to share information to other people around them to build a communication. Thus, it is important to learn language well, especially to learn English. There are four skills in learning English, they are reading, speaking, listening, and writing. The four skills are always involved in connection with the way to be skillful in English.
Writing is one of the most authentic and interactive ways of transferring thought and ideas to others. It can be alternative way to carry out communication, because through writing, people can communicate a variety of messages in a long form. Besides, people can express their idea, opinions, or feelings in various forms such as in papers, books, poems, letters, essays, short stories, novels, or research reports.
However, the researcher considers that writing is the most difficult skill for most students to be mastered. For this matter, Byrne in Shinta (2008: 3) stated that there are three head problems in writing namely: (1) psychological problem, in which the writer tends to be difficult to express his/her idea by their own words, (2) linguistic problem, which means the ability to organize the idea based on
sentence structure, and (3) cognitive problem, which means the ability to organize the writer’s idea in such a way that can be understood by readers.
For academic purpose, especially in university, writing has significant purpose as the main tool for learning. Ability in writing skill assists the students in producing both academic writing and non-academic writing such as essays, papers, proposals, or articles as assignment from lecturers. Essay is important both for university learning and professional world. It is used as a form of assessment in many academic disciplines and is used in both course work and exam. Essay is widely used by academics because it is a good way of assessing students’ thinking ability. Essay gives students the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of the material that they have been learnt.
In fact, there are several problems faced by students in writing an assigned essay paper by lecturers. Firstly, the most difficult part of writing an essay is the beginning. Many students are not careful in the selection of their topics. They decide selecting a topic and then realize that they cannot write anything about it.
This means that the students are confused and they do not know what the basis of their writing topic.
Secondly, the most commonly mistake in writing an essay is grammar. A longer piece of writing like an essay needs to be written in a formal way. Writing an essay requires precision in terms of grammar as well as in terms of meaning.
Many students think that what they say is what they have to write. Indeed, this is wrong. Grammar is very important and no matter how good the students’
vocabularies are or how fluency students speaking have in English, they must pay attention to the grammar aspect.
Next, organizing an essay is also important besides grammar knowledge in writing. It is important how the writer put all the information together in a logic way. If the writers do not organize the information well, everything become a mess and is failed. Therefore, the organization has to be cleared and well planned.
Besides, relationship between one sentence to the other in the paragraph, and as relationship between the paragraphs as well in an essay is also important thing to be considered in the writing process.
Sarada (2008: 8) also states that there is one more factor which binds the sentences in a paragraph, in one paragraph with another, tightly a like a chain, it is cohesion or linking devices. The writer uses some linking devices or the other to make join together semantically, logically and argumentatively together. It means that, it is a factor responsible to bind or join one sentence with another without being loose. In the other word, this device helps the text more structured and organized.
According to Halliday and Ruqaiah (1976: 4), cohesion refers to the relation of meaning that exists within a text. It is an important tool in English language production. It is part of the system of language which has the potentials for meaning enhancement in texts. The use of cohesion is very significant as it functions to join ideas between sentences to build a texture. An appropriate use of cohesive devices will result in a good arrangement and a coherent passage.
Cohesion can be divided into two major parts: grammatical and lexical cohesion. Grammatical cohesion appears in four types. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. Lexical cohesion can be seen in the form of reiteration and collocation. This division will be further discussed in chapter two.
Cohesion plays a very important role in building a text. We can imagine if we do not pay attention to all the things listed above when we compose a piece of writing, or we do not apply all the things at all. Our essay, of course, will be just like an amount of unrelated sentences that does not have any strong ideas to understand about. Because its importance, we need to be aware of using cohesion even if we are composing a short piece of writing, more over if we are composing a longer piece of writing such us an essay.
In relation to the description above the researcher is interested to conduct a research under the title “A Discourse Analysis of Cohesion in Essay Writing Made by the Seventh Semester Students of English Education Department of Makassar Muhammadiyah University.
B. Problem Statement
Based on the issue in the background above, the problem statements of this research as follows:
a. What types of cohesion are used in the students’ essay writing?
b. What is the frequency of occurrence of cohesion in the essay writing?
C. Objective of the Research
Relating to the problem statement mention above, the researcher states that objectives of the research are:
a. To find out the types of cohesion are used in the essay writing.
b. To state the frequency of occurrence of cohesion used in the essay writing.
D. Significance of the Research
The researcher expects that this research may give some significance:
1. For students, this research shows them how to do a discourse analysis of cohesion in essay writing. This research will give them explanation about how important to pay attention to the use of cohesion in writing, especially in writing essay as they have to produce in their study in the university.
2. This research hopefully could inform lectures about the students’ ability to produce good essay. Therefore, lectures especially who instruct writing subject can help their students to use cohesion types appropriately as one way to produce better English essay.
3. This research is expected to be a great contribution to the institution and other researcher, this research can be used as references in doing similar research in the same field in the future.
E. Scope of the Research
Discourse could appear in two forms, spoken and written, so it is important to give limitation to discourse. This research only focused on written discourse as it focuses on analyzing the essay writing by using cohesion made by the seventh semester students of English education department of Makassar Muhammadiyah University. Those types of cohesion are reference, substitution, conjunction, ellipsis, and lexical cohesion. As stated in the previous section, this
research focuses on finding out the types of cohesion that are used in the students’
essay writing and the second focus of this research is to reveal the frequency of occurrence of cohesion used in the essay.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Discourse Analysis
Taking about cohesion in a piece of writing, we cannot ignore the importance of discourse analysis. We have to begin the discussion from giving a clear explanation about discourse analysis. Below are some perceptions taken from several references:
McCarthy (1991: 5) clearly explains that “discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which is used.” What McCarthy explains is in line with what Brown and George (1983: 5) state about discourse analysis. They state that the analysis of discourse is the analysis of language use. The two options above are supported by the statement given by Jaworski and Coupland (1999: 135) that studying language as discourse does mean adopting a certain perspective on the asking and answering of study questions, on treating language as data, on representing language, and on interacting with language users.
Those statements above can be interpreted that the field of discourse analysis is the language in use. It is also supported by Hatch (1992: 1) who states that discourse analysis is the study of the language of communication - spoken or written. It studies the language in use. Because it studies the language in use, it covers very wide range of using languages. This includes written text of all kinds
and spoken data. The use of language in speaking can be form conversation to highly institutionalized forms of talk.
Fairclough (2003: 3) stated, “Text analysis is an essential part of discourse analysis”. Furthermore, he explained discourse analysis on written form is the study of language used deal with the formal and in semantically approach.
MacMillan in Shinta (2008: 11) explained discourse analysis is a term for broad are of language study that is investigating language in use and language in social context. Furthermore, Johnson and Johnson (in Ba’dulu, 2007) argue that discourse analysis is the study of how the stretches of language used in communication as same meaning, purpose, and unity for their users.
Paltridge (2006: 2) stated that discourse analysis focuses on knowledge about language beyond the word, clause, phrase and sentence that is needed for successful communication. It looks at pattern of language across texts and considers the relationship between language and the social and cultural contexts in which it is used. Discourse analysis also considers the ways that the language presents different views of the world and different understanding. It examines how the use of language is influenced by relationship between participants as well as the effects the use of language has upon social identities and relations.
Discourse analysis examines both spoken and written text.
As it has been mentioned above that discourse analysis includes written text and spoken language. Further, McCarthy (1991: 12) explains that the term discourse analysis covers the study of written and spoken interaction. This can be interpreted that discourse analysis covers the descriptions and analysis of
language in speaking and writing form. As we daily use and consume language in the two forms. In spoken interaction, we use language to have conversation, in explaining, giving direction, or giving commands. In written form, every day, we have to deal with written and printed words: newspaper, leaflets, magazines, written direction, textbook, billboards, advertisements on TV, etc.
B. Discourse and Text
It is noteworthy that text exists in both written and spoken language. The study of discourse and text started form attempts to extend the established descriptive structural methods beyond the analysis of the single sentence (Beaugrande, 1985), Coulthard (1990: 145) express that discourse is concerned with cohesion and coherence in the structure of text. Thus, the notion of discourse should be clarified in relation to the notion of text. It is necessary to do so in order to help readers understand why these two notions are sometimes used interchangeably. Without being clarified, it is going to be difficult to determine how the two things are connected and how one differs from another.
Brown and George (1983: 5) summarize that a text represents discourse. It is in line with what Haliday and Ruqaiya in Haryanto (1994: 14) who state that a text is a passage of discourse. Fairchlough (2003: 127) also states that discourse is drawn upon in this extract by the semantic relations which obtain within it. Those prove that text and discourse are closely related.
The explanation above makes it clear that discourse and text are closely related, so no doubt if many people use both the term interchangeably. Some people use the term discourse to refer to spoken language and text to refer to
written language. This is supported by the statement given by Wood and Rolf (2000: 19) that people use discourse to cover all spoken and written form of language use (talk and text) as social practice.
Having identified how discourse and text are related, it is necessary to talk about how the two notions are different. In general, if we have to refer to written discourse we can say that a discourse is longer than a text. Halliday and Ruqaiya (1976: 1) state that the word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken and written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole. It can be said that whatever a passage is short or long, as long as the elements that form the passage are unified, it is a text. While Crystal (1991: 106) states that discourse is a linguistics term used to refer to a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence and explains that text may refer to collection of written or spoken material such as conversation, monologues, rituals and so on.
Crystal’s idea is in line with Tanskanen’s (2006: 4) opinion that discourse is a set of interconnected texts. Again, it is stated that a discourse is possibly longer than a text because it is explained that discourse is a continuous stretch of language. Richards, Platt and Weber (1985: 82, 292) also give similar idea that discourse refers larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews and define text as a piece of spoken or written language and may just consist of only one word. Referring to what Halliday and Ruqaiya state above, a text can be a single sentence as long as the components that build up the sentence are unified.
By paying careful attention to the explanation about discourse and text given by experts, we can come to the conclusion that even though both of them are very closely related, they can be distinguished based on the length they belong to. A discourse is longer than a text.
C. Texture in Discourse
According to Halliday and Hassan (1976) a text is a text rather than a mere sequence of sentences. This is due to the linguistic features that cause sentences to stick together; i.e. what makes sentences constitute a text depends on “cohesive relationships” within and between sentences which create “texture”. A text has texture and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text. The texture is provided by the cohesive relations (Halliday and Ruqaiya, 1976: 2).
Texture is the basis for unity and semantic interdependence without text, and text without texture would just be a group of isolated sentences with no relation to one another.
Moreover, cohesion relates to the “semantic ties” within text where by a ties is made when there is some dependent link between items that combine to create meaning. Therefore, texture is created within text when there are properties of coherence and cohesion outside of the apparent grammatical structure of the text.
Beaugrande in Renkema (2004: 49) has formulated seven criteria for textuality, that is, criteria that a sequence of sentences must meet in order to qualify as a discourse.
a. Cohesion is the connection that results when the interpretation of a textual element is dependent on another element in the text. Consider the following example:
The store no longer sold porcelain figurines. It used to, the man behind the counter said, but they didn't sell very well. Since the business had switched to plastic, sales were doing a lot better.
The interpretation of "It" is dependent on that of "store" just as "they" is dependent on that of "porcelain figurines". The meaning of "used to" is dependent on "sold porcelain figurines". The word "plastic" can only be completely interpreted in relation to "(porcelain) figurines". Cohesion refers to the connection that exists between elements in the text.
b. Coherence is the connection that is brought about by something outside the text. This "something" is usually knowledge which a listener or reader is assumed to have. The following example is not problematic in terms of cohesion even though the sentences hardly seem to be connected.
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set.
It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once that too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well.
At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell.
After the procedure is complicated, one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places.
Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.
This seemingly disjointed passage becomes coherent when certain knowledge of the world. i.e., knowledge of washing clothes is applied to the text. The text then becomes easy to interpret.
c. Intentionality means that writers and speakers must have the conscious intention of achieving specific goals with their message, for instance, conveying information or arguing an opinion.
d. Acceptability requires that a sequence of sentences be acceptable to the intended audience in order to qualify as a text. Consider the claim "This book is mine. Don't you see my name is in it?" This example has a somewhat skewed internal logic and is therefore unacceptable to many people.
e. Informativeness is necessary in discourse. A discourse must contain new information. If a reader knows everything contained in a discourse, then it does not qualify. Likewise, if a reader does not understand what is in a discourse, it also does not qualify as a discourse.
f. Situationality is essential to textuality. So, it is important to consider the situation in which the discourse has been produced and dealt with.
g.
Intertextuality means that a sequence of sentences is related by form or meaning to other sequences of sentences. It concerns the factors which make the use of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more. A text, in fact, belongs to a wider receiver is actually able to encounter the intended message.In discourse studies most attention has been paid to the first criteria of cohesion and coherence, sometimes taken together as connectivity. Cohesion is usually defined as the connectivity that is literally detectable in discourse.
Coherence is the connectivity that can be inferred from the discourse by the reader or listener.
D. Cohesion
1. Definition of Cohesion
Cohesion is the use of language forms to indicate semantic relations between elements in a discourse. It is grammatical and lexical relationship within a text or sentence. Cohesion distinguishes texts from non-text and enables readers or listeners to establish relevance between what was said, is being said, and will be said, through the appropriate use of the necessary lexical and grammatical cohesive devices. Cohesion occurs when the semantic interpretation of some linguistic element in the discourse depends on another. Palmer in Alarcon (2011:
114) stated that cohesion is important both to the reader in constructing the meaning form a text and to the writer in creating a text that can be easily comprehended.
Furthermore, cohesion refers to the linguistic features which help make a sequence of sentences a text. It occurs in a text through the use of cohesive that link across sentences. According to Connor in Alarcon (2011: 114) stated that it is defined as the use of explicit cohesive devices that signals relations among sentences and parts of text. Cohesion is concerned with the ways which the components of a text are connected. In short, it is a relationship between lexical items and structures which are put together to construct a unified text. Below are some perceptions about cohesion taken from several references:
Cohesion can be defined as the set of resources for constructing relations in discourse which transcend grammatical structure (Halliday 1994: 309). Hoey (1996: 3) also stated that cohesion used to be described as the way certain words or grammatical features of a sentence can connect that sentence to its predecessors and successors in a text. Cohesion is the resources within language that provide continuity in a text, over and above that provided by clause structures and clause complexes (Gerot and Wignell, 1994: 170). Another statement comes from Beaugrande in Renkema, (2004: 49), he said that cohesion is the connection that results when the interpretation of a textual element is dependent on another element in the text.
According to McNamara and Crossley (2010: 984) cohesion refers to the presence or absence of explicit cues in the text that allow the reader to make connections between the ideas in the text. Richards and Richard in Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistic (2010: 94) also said that
“Cohesion is the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different
elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence”. According to Siahaan (2008: 130), cohesion refers to an effort how to link meanings to improve the unity of the text by discussing only one topic and one idea. Once the meaning in a text is linked, cohesion works there.
2. The Concept of Cohesion
The concept of “cohesion” was introduced by Halliday and Ruqaiya in 1976, whose major concern is to investigate how sentences are linked in a text. In writing, cohesion is a very important aspect as it gives effects to the tone of writing. The concept of cohesion is a semantic one, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text (Halliday and Ruqaiya 1976: 4). Beside Cohesion means correct sentences, it refers to the connection of ideas, both at the sentence level and the paragraph level as well.
Correct sentences are those grammatically formulated in the right pattern and having understandable meaning.
Cohesion is created through grammatical and lexical forms. Halliday and Ruqaiya (1976, 1-292) identify five general categories of cohesive devices that signal cohesion in texts; they are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion.
a. Reference
Reference is the specific nature of the information that is signaled for retrieval. In this case of reference, the information to be retrieved in the referential meaning the identity of particular thing or class of things that is being referred to,
and the cohesion lies in the continuity references, whereby the same thing enters into the discourse a second time (Halliday and Ruqaiya, 1976: 31). Reference refers to resources for referring to a participant or circumstantial element whose identity is recoverable.
Reference relates one element of the text to another for its interpretation. It is semantic relation and potentially cohesive relation because the thing that serves as the source of the interpretation may itself be an element of text. Take a look at the example below:
1. Three blind mice, three blind mice!
See how they run! See how they run!
2. Doctor Foster went to Gloucester in a shower of rain. He stepped in the puddle right up to this middle and never went there again.
3. There were two wrens upon the tree.
Another came, and there were three.
In (1), they refer to three blind mice; in (2) there refers to Gloucester; in (3) another refers to wrens.
In general rule, reference items are then divided into two parts, Exophoric or Exophora (situational) and Endophoric or Endophora (textual). Exophoric reference is used if a speaker or writer mentions any references referring to something or someone outside of the text. Endophoric reference on the contrary uses any references as the representation of the antecedents inside the text, whether in one sentence or even in different case. The example below hopefully can make them clear between the two.
1. Arriving earlier than what was planned, she first stayed to have a cup of coffee in the cafeteria before home.
2. Ann will never forgive you. She has been so disappointed.
She in the first sentence refers to a girl not mentioned in the text. Yet, the writer or readers both have known actually to whom she refers to. Different with the sentence no.2, she has textually been clear as the antecedent Ann is referred to.
Moreover, Halliday and Ruqaiya (1976: 37) divide reference into three types: personal, demonstrative, and comparative reference.
a. Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the category of person. The category of personal reference includes personal pronoun, possessive determiner, and possessive pronouns.
Example: Neil is a devoted teacher. He always prepares his lessons carefully. (The personal pronouns He and his refer to the noun Neil.) b. Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale
of proximity. This category includes three classes: nominative demonstrative, circumstantial demonstrative and definite article.
Example: A man crossed the street. Nobody saw what happen.
Suddenly, the man was lying there and calling for help. (The definite article” the” refers to the entire first sentence.)
c. Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity. It is divided in two kinds: general and particular comparison.
Example: Some people eat to live while others live to eat. (The comparative referential tie others refers to people.)
b. Substitution
Halliday and Ruqaiya in Cohesion in English (1976: 88) stated that substitution is defined as the replacement of one item by another. It is actually a relation within a text. Further, a substitute is a sort of counter which is used in place of the repetition of a particular item by using the smoother meaning. E.g.:
1) My raincoat is broken anymore. Could you by the new one?
2) Are you sure that everyone knows? I think everyone does.
3) Is there going to be an earthquake? It says so.
One in sentence (1) substitutes raincoat as the antecedent. So do does referring knows and so referring to there going to be an earthquake.
As a general rule, the substitute item has the same structural function as that for it which it substitutes. In the above example, raincoat and one are both Head in the nominal group; and knows and does are both head in the verbal group.
And in clausal group, here the so presuppose the whole of the clause there’s going to be an earthquake.
In English, the substitute may function as a noun, as a verb, or as a clause.
Halliday and Ruqaiya (1976: 90) the divided into three types substitution; they are Nominal, Verbal, and Clausal substitution.
a. Nominal Substitution happen where the noun or a nominal group can be replaced by a noun. It consists of one and ones which function as
head of a nominal group and same which substitutes for an entire nominal group.
For Example: “There are some new tennis balls in the baf .These ones have lost their bounce”. In this example, “tennis balls” is replaced by the item “ones”.
b. Verbal substitution occurred when the verb or a verbal group can be replaced by another verb which is “do” (does, did, doing, done). This functions as a head of verbal group, and it is usually placed at the end of the group.
For Example: A: Annie says you drink too much. B: So do you? Here, the word “do” substitutes “drink too much”.
c. Clausal substitution is a relation in which the entire clause not an element within the clause is presupposed and the contrasting element is outside the clause. Clausal substitution consists of so and not. For Example: A: It is going to rain? B: I think so. In this example, the clause “It is going to rain” is substituted by the word “so”.
c. Ellipsis
Spencer in Kitab Grammar (2012: 730) stated that Ellipsis is characterized by the omitting some words that has been grammatically understood.
Nevertheless, the meaning the meaning can still be understood as the words have been mentioned.
Ellipsis is an omission of an element required by the grammar which is assumed obvious from the context and need not to be raised. In other words,
ellipsis occurs when some important elements are omitted from a sentence or a clause and can only be recovered by referring to an element in the preceding text.
Further, like substitution, this kind of cohesive device is classified into three types; nominal, verbal, and clausal ellipsis (Halliday & Ruqaiya, 1976: 146).
a. In Nominal ellipsis means the lefting out of any nouns from text. On the logical dimensions, the structure is that of a head with optional modification, the modifying element includes some which precede the head and some which follow it as pre-modifier and post-modifier.
For example: There are only a few vehicles on the road. More (vehicles) are expected to travel along the road after the New Year Holiday. The word “vehicles” is omitted in the second sentence.
b. Verbal ellipsis means the ellipsis within the verbal groups. An elliptical verbal group presupposes one or more words from previews verbal groups. Technically it is defined as a verbal group whose structure doesn’t fully express in systematic feature.
For example: A: have you been working? B: Yes, I have (been working). Here, the omission of the verbal group depends on what is said before and it is concerned with “been working”.
c. Clausal ellipsis on the other hand can be viewed from another angle, taking the clause as the point of departure the clause in English is considered as the expression as the various speech function, such as statement, question, response and so on. Clausal ellipsis represents the omission of a part or whole clause.
For example: I kept quite because Anne gets very angry if anyone mentions Lina’s name. I don’t know why. The complete sentence in the second part is “I don’t know why Anne gets angry if anyone mentions Lina’s name”. Here, a clause is omitted.
d. Conjunction
Conjunction refers to the words, such as 'and', 'however', 'finally' and 'in conclusion' that join phrases, clauses or sections of a text in such a way that they express the logical semantic relationship between them (Paltridge, 2006: 139).
Conjunction refers to a specification of the way in which what is to follow is systematically connected to what has gone before. A conjunction is usually structure a text/ discourses in a precise way and brings the presented elements into a logical order. Conjunction functions to connect one element of text with another.
The element which is connected can be word, phrase, clause, sentence, or even paragraph. Conjunction signals the way the writer wants the reader to relate what is about to be said to what has been said before
Halliday and Ruqaiya (1976: 238) divided it into four categories, namely, additive, adversative, causal, and temporal conjunction.
a. Additive conjunction signals the presentation of addition information such as: and, moreover, in addition to, and, or, also, in addition, furthermore, besides, similarly, likewise, by contrast, for instance.
b. Adversative conjunction is conjunction which moderates or qualifies the information in the following sentence of a text with the information
in the preceding. For example: but, yet, however, instead, on the other hand, nevertheless, at any rate, as a matter of fact.
c. Causal conjunction interprets the relationship between the cause and consequence such as: because of, for, so, consequently, it follows, for, because, under the circumstances, for this reason.
d. Temporal conjunction expresses the relationships which exit when the events in a text are related in terms of the timing of their occurrence.
For example: first, then, after that, then, next, after that, on another occasion, in conclusion, an hour later, finally, at last.
e. Lexical Cohesion
The remaining type of pattern by which a speaker or writer creates cohesion in discourse is the choice of lexical item. Lexical cohesion refers to how the writer uses lexical items such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs to relate to the text consistently to its area of focus (Eggins, 1994: 101). Lexical cohesion refers to relationships in meaning between lexical items in a text and in particular content words and the relationship between them (Paltridge, 2006: 133).
Lexical cohesion deals with the meaning of the text. It concerns the way in which lexical items relate to each other and to other cohesive devices so that textual continuity is created. Halliday and Ruqaiya in Cohesion in English (1976:
274) stated that specifically, this kind of cohesive device is formed by Reiteration and Collocation.
Reiteration is subdivided into the repetition of a lexical item, the use of a general word to refer back to a lexical item, and the use of a synonym, or super ordinate terms. They will be discussed as follows:
a. Repetition, restate the same lexical item in a later part of the discourse.
For Example: There’s a flower in the vase. The flower was bought from a market. The word flower is repeated in the second sentence.
b. Synonymy used to express a similar meaning of an item.
For example: His job is enjoyable. He has never been bored with his work. The words job and work are synonymous.
c. Super ordinate, it involves the use of general class words.
For Example: They went to the emporium. The shopping mall was large and had a lot of goods. The noun phrase shopping mall is the super ordinate term referring to the emporium.
d. General nouns are used to refer back to a lexical item such as: person, people, man, woman for human nouns; things, object for inanimate, concrete countable nouns; stuff for inanimate, concrete uncountable;
place for location …etc.
For Example: The computer should be replaced. That old thing works erratically. The word thing is the general word referring to computer.
While collocation is the way in which particular word occur or belong together. Collocation deals with the association of lexical items that regularly co- occur (Halliday and Ruqaiya, 1976: 284). Collocation is the use of word that is in some way associated with another word in the preceding text, because it is a direct
repetition of it, or is in some sense synonymous with it, or tends to occur in the same lexical environment. Collocation is probably the hardest lexical cohesion to analyze. Some examples are: “sheep” and “wool”, “congress” and “politician” or
“college” and “university”. Take a look at the example below:
1. Red Cross helicopters were in the air continuously. The blood bank will soon be desperately in need of donors.
2. The hedgehog scurried across the road. Its speed surprised me.
For instance, the correct interpretation of the word "speed" is only possible by reading the preceding sentence within which the word "scurried" is of primary importance.
3. Procedure of Cohesion Analysis
The notion of cohesion analysis has been discussed so far. The discussion of this notion is mainly based on Halliday and Ruqaiya (1967) theory of cohesion in English. After they explain cohesion in their book, they present the last chapter of their book entitles Cohesion in English. The last chapter talks about the analysis of cohesion. In this section, the researcher adopts the steps of cohesion analysis which is presented by Haryanto (1994: 30-36) in his thesis. The procedure involves the following steps:
1) Identifying T-unit
According to Hunt in Haryanto (1994), a T-unit is an independent clause. Thus, a simple sentence consists of one T-Unit because it only consists of one independent clause. As it is explained by Hogue (1996: 44) that a compound sentence is two simple sentences connected by a comma
and coordinating conjunction, it also has two T-units since it has two independent clauses. A complex sentence may have more than T Unit because it may contain more than one independent clause.
To apply this step in the analysis, every T-Unit is numbered. The example of this application can be illustrated as follow:
(1) Once upon a time there was a little girl. (2) She went out for a walk. (3) She saw a lovely teddy bear (4) and she took it home. When she got home, (5) she washed it.
Each number in the brackets above shows every single T-unit. The first and the second sentence are simple, so they are given two numbers: (1) and (2). The third sentence is compound which contains two T-units, number (3) and (4). The last sentence is a complex sentence which contains one independent and one dependent clause. Thus, it contains only one T-unit numbered (5).
2) Identifying Semantic relation
It has been stated that cohesion is a semantic relation. The semantic relation appears in the presence of cohesive devices in a discourse. The cohesive relations, as it has been explained, are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical reiteration, or lexical collocation. Taking the examples given previously, the application of this step can be drawn as follow:
(1) Once upon a time there was a little girl. (2) She went out for a walk. (3) She saw a lovely teddy bear (4) and she took it home. When she got home, (5) she washed it.
In the example above, we can see the underline words. They are underlined in order to show the semantic relations among the words in the text. The underlined word she in T-unit (2), (3), (4), and (5), and the word it in T-unit (4) and (5) occur as reference referring to the same item girl in T-unit (1) and item Teddy bear in T-unit (2). The words went out in T-unit (2) and got home in T-unit (5) present the relation which is called lexical reiteration. The same thing happens to the word home in T-unit (4) and (5) reveal the lexical cohesion.
3) Labeling the identified cohesion.
Halliday and Ruqaiya (1976: 333) put the details of cohesion in the following list.
List of Coding Schemes
Coding
REFERENCE R
1. Pronominal R1
(1) Singular, masculine he, him, his 11
(2) Singular feminine she, her, hers 12
(3) Singular, neuter it, its 13
(4) Plural they, them, their, theirs 14
1(1-4) function as:
(a) Non-possessive, as Head he/ him, she/her, it, they/them 6 (b) Possessive as Head his, hers, (its) theirs 7 (c) Possessive as Deictic his, her, its, their 8
2. Demonstrative and definite article R2
(1) Demonstrative, near this/these, here 21
(2) Demonstrative, far that/those, there, then 22
(3) Definite article the 23
2(1-3) functioning as:
(a) Nominal, Deictic or Head this/these, that/those, the 6
(b) Place adverbial here, there 7
(c) Time adverbial then 8
3. Comparative (not complete lists) R3
(1) Identity eg: same, identical 31
(2) Similarity eg: similar(ly), such, between 32 (3) Difference (ie: non-identity and eg: different, other, else
dissimilarity) additional 33
(4) Comparison, quantity eg: more, less, as many:
Ordinals 34
(5) Comparison, quality eg: as+adjective; comparative
And superlatives 35
3(1-5) functioning as:
(a) Deictic (1-3) 6
(b) Numerative (4) 7
(c) Epithet (5) 8
(d) Adjunct or Sub modifier (1-5) 9
Coding
SUBSTITUTION S
1. Nominal substitutes S1
(1) For noun Head one/ ones 11
(2) For nominal Complement the same 12
(3) For attribute so 13
2. Verbal Substitutes S2
(1) For verb do, be, have 21
(2) For process do the same/ likewise 22
(3) For preposition do so, be so 23
(4) Verbal reference do it/that, be it/that 24
3. Clausal Substitutes S3
(1) Positive so 31
(2) Negative not 32
3(1-2) substitute clause functioning as:
(a) Reported 6
(b) Conditional 7
(c) Modalized 8
(d) Other 9
Coding
ELLIPSIS E
1. Nominal Ellipsis E1
(1) Deictic as Head 11
i. Specific Deictic 1
ii. Non-specific Deictic 2
iii. Post-Deictic 3
(2) Numerative as Head 12
i. Ordinal 1
ii. Cardinal 2
iii. Indefinite 3
(3) Epithet as Head 13
i. Superlative 1
ii. Comparative 2
iii. Others 3
2. Verbal ellipsis E2
(1) Lexical ellipsis (‘from right’) 21
i. Total (all items omitted except the first operator) 1
ii. Partial (lexical verb only omitted) 2
(2) Operator ellipsis (‘from left’) 22
i. Total (all items omitted except lexical cohesion 1
ii. Partial (first operator only omitted) 2
3. Clausal Ellipsis E3
(1) Propositional ellipsis 31
i. Total (all propositional element omitted) 1 ii. Partial (some complement or adjunct present) 2
(2) Modal ellipsis 32
i. Total (all modal element omitted) 1
ii. Partial (subject present) [rare] 2
(3) General ellipsis of the clause (all elements but one omitted) 33
i. WH-(only WH-element present) 1
ii. Yes/no (only item expressing polarity present) 2 iii. Other (other single clause element present) 3
(4) Zero (entire clause omitted) 34
3(1-4) elliptical clauses functioning as:
(a) Yes/no question or answer 6
(b) WH- question or answer 7
(c) ‘reported’ element 8
(d) Otherwise 9
Coding CONJUNCTION (items quoted are example, not complete lists) C Note: (E) =External, (I) = Internal
1. Additive C1
(1) Simple: (E/I) 11
i. Additive and, and also, as well as, but also 1
ii. Negative nor, and…not 2
iii. Alternative or, or else 3
(2) Complex, emphatic: (I) 12
i. Additive furthermore, add to that, in addition 1
ii. Alternative alternatively 2
(3) Complex, de-emphatic: (I) by the way, incidentally, whenever 13
(4) Apposition : (I) 14
i. Expository that is, in other words 1 ii. Exemplificatory eg, thus, such as, for instance 2
(5) Comparison: (I) 15
i. Similar likewise, in the same way 1
ii. Dissimilar on the other hand, by contrast, besides 2
2. Adversative C2
(1) Adversative ‘proper’: (E/I) 21
i. Simple yet, though, only 1
ii. +’and’ but, yet 2
iii. Emphatic however, even so, all the same,
Even though, even worse 3
(2) Contrastive (avowal): (I) in (point of) fact, actually 22
(3) Contrastive: (E) 23
i. Simple but, and 1
ii. Emphatic however, conversely, on the
other hand, in the other side, whereas,
nonetheless, although 2
(4) Correction: (I) 24
i. Of meaning instead, on the contrary, rather 1
ii. Of wording at least, I mean, or rather 2
(5) Dismissal: (I) 25
i. Closed in any/ either case 1
ii. Open-ended in any case, anyhow 2
3. Causal C3
(1) General: (E/I) 31
i. Simple so, then, therefore, hence, unfortunately 1
ii. Emphatic consequently 2
(2) Specific: (E/I) 32
i. Reason on account of this 1
ii. Result in consequence, as a result 2
iii. Purpose with this in mind 3
(3) Reversed causal: (I) for, because, cause 33
(4) Causal, specific (I) 34
i. Reason it follows 1
ii. Result arising out of this 2
iii. Purpose to this end 3
(5) Conditional: (E/I) 35
i. Simple then 1
ii. Emphatic in that case, in such an event 2
iii. Generalized under the circumstances 3
iv. Reversed polarity otherwise, under other
circumstances 4
(6) Respective: (I) 36
i. Direct in this respect, here 1
ii. Reversed polarity otherwise, apart from this,
in other respect 2
4. Temporal C4
(1) Simple: (E) 41
i. Sequential then, next 1
ii. Simultaneous just then 2
iii. Preceding before that, hitherto 3
(2) Conclusive: (E) in the end 42
(3) Correlatives: (E) 43
i. Sequential first….then 1
ii. Conclusive at first/originally/formerly
…finally/now 2
(4) Complex: (E) 44
i. Immediate at once 1
ii. Interrupted soon 2
iii. Repetitive next time 3
iv. Specific next day 4
v. Durative meanwhile 5
vi. Terminal until then 6
vii. Punctiliar at this moment 7
(5) Internal temporal: (I) 45
i. Sequential then, next 1
ii. Conclusive finally, in conclusion 2
(6) Correlative: (I) 46
i. Sequential first…next 1
ii. Conclusive in the first place…to
conclude with 2
(7) Here and now: (I) 47
i. Past up to now 1
ii. Present at this point, at present, in this time 2
iii. Future from now on 3
(8) Summary: (I) 48
i. Summarizing to sum up, in summary 1
ii. Resumptive to resume 2
LEXICAL L
1. Same item 1
2. Synonym or near synonym (include hyponymy) 2
3. Superordinate 3
4. ‘General’ item 4
5. Collocation 5
1-5 having reference that is:
(a) Identical 6
(b) Inclusive 7
(c) Exclusive 8
(d) Unrelated 9
E. The Essay Writing
In writing, essay writing can be used to measure the ability and know the quality of students through writing. Essays are assigned by instructors as a method for measuring critical thinking skill, understanding of course material, and writing skill. It is important to be considered that by looking at the text, we can determine the extent of the knowledge of students.
1. Definition of an Essay
An essay is a piece of writing that is written to convince someone of something or to simply inform the reader about a particular topic. An essay is a more formal composition. Muhyidin in Safri (2013: 18) states that an essay is a group of paragraph that develops one central idea. An essay is a complex form of idea thought and paragraph. An essay also a simple forms of written material but has various types of paragraph development.
According to Lord (1948: 118), essay (which is called a theme, paper or composition) is like a paragraph in many ways. Both paragraph and an essay are purposeful reader centered orderly unified, coherent and correct.
Wesley (1997: 6) states that an essay is a piece of writing that has more than one paragraph. It is divided into three parts: a beginning is called introduction, the middle is called the body and the end is called the conclusion.
The introduction and conclusion are usually one paragraph each. The body may have from one to unlimited number of paragraph.
In addition, Oshima in Saraka (1988: 176) states an essay is a piece of writing of several paragraphs, instead of just one or two paragraph. It is written
about one topic just as a paragraph. However, the topic of an essay is too long and too complex to discuss in one paragraph. Therefore, we must divide the topic into several paragraph, one is for major point. Then we must tie the entire separate paragraph together by adding information and a conclusion. Yarber (1989: 59) also stated that an essay can be thought of as series of paragraph about on main idea. The main idea of the essay is usually expressed in a thesis statement, a sentences which tells the reader that essay will cover
Structurally the paragraph and the essay are quite similar. The paragraph introductory put forward the topic and the central idea of essay. A paragraph is a group of sentences that discuss on main idea or the topic.
The difference is that essay is longer than paragraph. If a paragraph consists of several sentences, an essay may involve a set paragraph. If we are good enough in producing paragraph, surely we can write an essay even more satisfactory. A good essay is supported by powerful paragraphs and absolutely number of our idea is written into paragraph as essential pillars of an essay.
In building up an essay, the learners have to know the five component of writing in order to exceed their difficulties and to be effective writers. The five general components of writing are content, organization, vocabulary language use and mechanics. Those components related one another in order to produce a good writing. They are integrated components. The absence of one of them will result in a poor writing.
2. Parts of an essay
Some theorists have put forward their concept related to essay. Yarber (1989: 59) defines that the typical essay contains three parts: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. The introduction presents the thesis statement and catches the reader’s interest so that they will read on. For a brief essay of about 300 to 500 words, paragraph will be enough. Longer essays sometimes contain more than one paragraph.
The body is the longest part of the essay. It usually consists of several paragraphs and its purpose is to develop and expand the thesis statement. Each paragraph of the body of the essay treats a different aspect of division on the thesis statement in the first line of the new paragraph is a signal to reader that a new thought is introduced.
The conclusion of the essay is usually stated in the last paragraph, although, as the case of introduction, it may consume several paragraphs in a long essay. The purpose of the conclusion is to convey a signal that the essay is ended.
It reminds the reader of the major points, restates the thesis, or urges the reader to take certain course of action.
Notice that the thesis statement is placed at the end of the introductory paragraph. Although it is acceptable to place in other locations, many writers recommend that the thesis statement conclude the introductory paragraph. So that it can lead in naturally to the body of the essay.
Briefly, the basic plan of a typical essay paragraph contains:
Background Information
Gets reader attention using one or more of the following:
- Anecdotes - Quotations
- Questions - Facts and statistics Thesis Statement
States the subject and focus of the essay 1ST SUPPORTING PARAGRAPH
Topic sentence: states first supporting point provides supporting details, examples, facts.
2nd SUPPORTING PARAGRAPH
Topic sentence: states second supporting point provides details, examples, facts.
3rd SUPPORTING PARAGRAPH
Topic sentence: states second supporting point provides details, examples, facts.
Makes final comments by doing one or more of the following:
Restating main points
Asking a question
Suggesting a solution
Making a recommendation
Making a prediction
(Karen and Root, 2004:61) 3. The Types of Essay Writing
Alexander in Safri (2013: 23) divides the essay writing into five main divisions according to the kinds of discourse as follows:
a. Narrative Essay
When telling a story, it is best to relate events chronologically. The first paragraph of a story should set the scene and the most exciting part CONCLUSION
BODY INTRODUCTION
should come at the end. Then, the general outline for stories should be as follows:
1) Before the event 2) The event, and 3) After the event
Kind of narrative essay should be as follow:
1) Historical Narrative
Historical narrative is essays which explain a human history or to do process the correlation with life. For example: the history of prophet Muhammad SAW and the history of G30S/PKI
If the focus of the writing is a school, we should choose members to interview such us coaches, players, and alumni about their experience. If the topic is about colleges or pro sport, we may want to narrow our focus to the story of particular language, team, or player.
Choosing one or two students to find information about the topic, two students to write short narrative or at least two aspects of the topic presented, and two more members to find accompany and work and to present the narrative in an attractive book.
2) Fictional Narrative
A fictional narrative is a story from a writer’s imagination. It contains events or plot, and it invoices characters. The story is set in a specific place and time, or setting, and told from a particular point of view. Non-fiction narratives such as history and biographies are about
events that really happened, but they also contain plot, characters, setting and point of view, and can be just as full of action and human interest as fiction.
3) Short Narrative
The theme writer observes that in a person’s life. In this case, the writer should structuralize the body of the narrative chronologically. Put in those events and details that support the writer image of the subject, summarize or unit less relevant incident.
b. Reflective Essay
A reflective essay is an exercise in contemplation on any given subject. This essay tests our ability to think and organize our ideas and to draw on our experience, imagination, and knowledge.
c. Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay is concerned almost entirely with ideas. An ability to reason and a capacity for arranging ideas in logical other are the important requirements.
d. Literary Essay
The literary essay is an insightful, critical interpretation of a literary work. It is not a summary of plot, character or other elements of fiction in any given literary work. This means that writers provide their own formal interpretation or opinion of the topic and they use the literary work to prove or substantiate their understanding of the topic.
e. Descriptive Essay
A descriptive essay gives sense impressions about the feel, sound, taste, smell, and look of things. It may also describe emotions such as happiness, fear, loneliness, gloom, and joy. Description helps the reader through his or her imagination, to visualize a scene or a person, or to understand a sensation or an emotion.
Wishon and Burks in Safri (2013: 28) say that a good description (in a paragraph form) usually has three important qualities. It has dominant impression supported by specific details, a clearly recognizable mood, and logical development.
1) Dominant Impression
A dominant impression is the description of physical appearance of an object. It tells about what an object physically looks like. For example, when we write “Carol is very tall and has long straight hair, such phrases as very tall and long, straight hair tell about the physical appearance of Carol.
In a paragraph form, the first sentence or even the first erode of a description may establish the dominant impression. Succeeding sentences will then reinforce and expand it by supplying further information and filling in details, in other words, the sentences which establish the dominant impression usually serves as the topic sentences of the paragraph.
2) Mood
A mood is feeling that goes beyond physical appearance. Feeling and emotions such as joy, fear and anxiety evoke or create moods.
Mention good or bad qualities may contribute to establishing the general mood. In other words, moods tell what the writer feels about an object, a situation, or an event that he or she is describing.
3) Logical Development
A piece of good descriptive essay in a paragraph form has some logical plan of development, the writer tries to give a picture or impression of a person, place, or thing but, unlike the photographer or the painter, who has chemicals or pigments to work with, the writer has only words to use. Therefore, the writer must have a vintage point from which she views and what is being described. She may begin with a dominant impression and proceed to specific details, or she may start with the specific details and conclude with a dominant impression.
The qualities of a descriptive essay are briefly discussed above concern with the establishment of a descriptive essay paragraph. That is a good descriptive essay or paragraph should fulfill such qualities.
F. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework underlying this research is presented in the following diagram:
Essay Writing
Result1 Result 2
Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework above describes the research procedure of this research that focus on discourse analysis of cohesion in essay writing. The students are required to make an essay writing text. Then, the researcher would like to identify an essay text by using cohesion analysis. This is to find out the cohesive types used by the students in their essay and the frequency of occurrence of cohesion.
Frequency of Occurrence of Cohesion Cohesion Analysis
Cohesive Types
Lexical Cohesion Conjunction
Ellipsis Substitution
Reference
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD
A. Research Design
The design of this research was a descriptive research to analyze the students’ essay writing. Descriptive design was used because there was no treatment given to the students. It meant that the used of cohesion in the students’
essay writings was only described as what they were, without giving any treatments (Ary in Sutama, 1997: 85).
This research focused on the cohesion in essay writing made by the students, described the types of cohesion used and the frequency of occurrence of cohesion.
B. Research Variable and Indicators
1. The variables of this research were the types of cohesion and the frequency of occurrence of cohesion types used in the essay writing.
2. The indicators of cohesion were reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion.
a. Reference relates one element of the text to another for its interpretation. It is semantic relation and potentially cohesive relation because the thing that serves as the source of the interpretation may itself be an element of text. There are three types of reference:
1) Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the category of person.
2) Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of proximity.
3) Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity.
b. Substitution is a replacement of one component by another within a text. A substitute is word which is used in place of the repetition of a particular item. Then, there are three types of substitution:
1) Nominal substitution, which is happen where the noun or a nominal group can be replaced by a noun.
2) Verbal substitution, which is occur when the verb or verbal group can be replaced by another verb.
3) Clausal substitution is a relation in which the entire clause not an element within the clause is presupposed and the contrasting element is outside the clause.
c. Ellipsis is an omission of an element required by the grammar which is assumed obvious from the context and need not to be raised. Ellipsis is divided into three parts:
1) Nominal ellipsis is the ellipsis within the nominal group, where the omission of nominal group is served a common noun, proper noun or pronoun.
