28
CHICKEN GAME APPROACH IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION FOR SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
INNOVATION
Arief Setiawan1
Abstract
Conflict is a necessity. Despite being a necessity, the handling can be engineered through careful planning. Chicken game approach in a game theory is an analytical instrument that can be used to prevent the occurrence of conflicts without the need to avoid it. Conflict resolution is the next stage when the conflict occurs. Adequate conflict resolution will not only ease the conflict, but even could become an instrument of empowerment. Indonesia's infrastructure development experiences often cause a tension. Those experiences become the basis so that the similar events do not recur in the future. It is intended that innovation of sustainable infrastructure development is not impeded. In fact, it is expected to accelerate in order to achieve the national interest.
Keywords: chicken game approach, conflict resolution, infrastructure development
Introduction
Infrastructure development has a very broad spectrum as it involves many aspects, namely: human, natural and economic resources, environmental sustainability, as well as the values in the society. This complexity raises tension and shock, even the conflict can occur if it is not managed properly. Management is not merely in the an sich technical sense, but more than that, also about the human aspect. Therefore,
1 Lecturer of International Relations Departement Universitas Brawijaya. E-mail:
29 infrastructure development needs to prioritize antropo-centrism aspects, a human as the center of attention in every stage so that the result has a high efficiency and sustainability.
The importance of human aspect in the infrastructure development is because in every stage, begin from the initial process, has been associated with the public. In fact, when the phase of the use of value to a result of infrastructure development, human aspect remains the main actor. Therefore, there is a very important question regarding to this; "How to give more value to the development of society as a fair and does not interfere with the efforts to conserve the environment?" This is a fundamental question that need to be observed since the ongoing planning until the implementation process and not only emphasizing the technical aspects statically and an easy social engineering.
It is no doubt that the conflict is often present when infrastructure development is underway. The most vulnerable point is when the development uses the agrarian societies resources, both are belonging to individual or community.2 Quite often, it causes loss of life due to the use of coercive approaches to overcome the tension that are still going on. Kedungombo Reservoir and Nipah development could be an example of how society is sacrificed in the name of development when it became a mantra and political order in the Suharto era.3 These black notes of course would not happen if the violence approach is not done and put forward the dialogue in order to obtain an adequate conflict resolution and justice.
Development is a process of impoverishment. This is the adage that often arise when the infrastructure development is implemented. The adage applies from the startup to the use value of the development. The emergence of this adage is closely to reality and applies plural, i.e. marginalized groups should relent for the development. There is also an indirect way, i.e. the environmental damage. For people who still depend on the
2 Lucas, Anton&Warren, Carol. “The Land, The law, and The People.” Lucas, Anton&Warren, Carol. Land for the People: The State and Agrarian Conflict in Indonesia http://www.ohioswallow.com/extras/9780896802872_toc_and_chapter_01.pdf , pp. 14-19 retrieved on October 5, 2014 at 21.00; As Clear as Mud: Understanding the Root of Conflicts and Problems in
Indonesia’s Land Tenure Policy
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFS/PP07287.pdf retrieved on October 5, 2017 at 21.15
3 Gultom, Samuel. (2003). Mengadili Korban: Praktek Pembenaran Terhadap kekerasan Negara.
Jakarta: Elsam, p. 60
30 nature, preservation of the environment is a fixed price. Damage to the environment means the destruction of the lives that have been established.4 This is the other side of the construction of infrastructure that need an attention so that what it produces can be more efficient and has a great benefit to improving the society’s welfare.
In principle, the infrastructure development is not a process of impoverishment.
The infrastructure development is aimed at the equitable distribution acceleration and the economic growth. However, it is undeniable that infrastructure development often affect the community in the form of impoverishment due to carelessness planning, the inappropriate socio-cultural approach and corruption5. Related to conflicts, the first and the second factor are the most dominantly occurred. The absence of equal dialogue between the community and infrastructure development executor has raised to conflict.
The use of coercive approach is the main cause of the complexity of its sequel. It can be continued, but still sacrificing the interests, and even the basic rights of the local community.
To prevent the emergence of violence (conflict) as the impact of infrastructure development, dialogue becomes most feasible alternative in this case. The form of the dialogue should be free from the domination of any party to promote equality between the two sides. Dialog is done when the project is still in the planning process (before execution) so that the mapping of public interest and its socio-cultural conditions can be done. Both are important and should be done simultaneously in order to avoid gaps in its implementation because since 2000, the agrarian conflicts popping up one after another.6 In addition, it is to facilitate when the project or infrastructure development takes place.
4 See, Suku Anak Dalam: Perubahan yang Memiskinkan http://pusaka.or.id/suku-anak-dalam- perubahan-yang-memiskinkan/ retrieved on October 5, 2017 at 18.50
5 Kurniadi, Yusuf. “Dampak Massif Korupsi.” Puspito, Nanang T. et. al. (eds.). (2011).
Pendidikan Anti-korupsi untuk Perguruan Tinggi. Jakarta: Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi Bagian Hukum Kepegawaian, pp. 59-60
6 Galudra, Gamma, Chip Fay , and Martua Sirait3. As Clear as Mud: Understanding the Root of Conflicts and Problems in Indonesia’s Land Tenure Policy http://www.worldagroforestry.org retrieved October 4, 2017 at 21.45
31 Conflict of Infrastructure Development: Kedung Ombo and Nipah Reservoir
In the Suharto era, the construction development being a sacred word and cannot be denied by anyone. The rejection of the construction development can be considered as a subversive attempt to be dealt firmly by using the tool of state violence. Various state violence often occurs when the infrastructure development done in that era.7 In this case, there are two important events that could be an example of the use of state violence (abuse of power) when the process of infrastructure development takes place, namely: Kedung Ombo Reservoir (Central Java) and Nipah Reservoir (Madura, East Java). Both could be a portrait of the conflict in infrastructure development in the absence of dialogue and adequate conflict resolution.
In the construction of Kedung Ombo Reservoir in the 1980s in Central Java, the government did not hear the aspirations of local communities related to land compensation. Community protests met with coercive measures. Kedung Ombo dam construction was the development of the Jratunseluna river basin which covers Boyolali, Grobogan, and Sragen district. Its construction was intended for flood control and irrigation purpose. A total of 5,268 head of families with an average number of people per household of five to six people. They worked as farmers, farm laborers, carpenters and wood workers, masons, and civil servants.8
In 1983, the same year with the took over of Mount Kumukus management by the Department of Tourism, the President Suharto announced plans of Jakarta to build a giant project of Kedung Ombo which will be drown 35 villages in Boyolali and Sragen which are located in the flood areas. The project is financed by the World Bank with funding of USD 156 million and aims to irrigate 87,000 fields covering 59,000 square hectars. However, to conduct this project, approximately 5,000 heads of families who settled in the reservoir inundation area should be resettled to Bengkulu. President Suharto
7 Winarno, MA, Prof. Dr. Budi. (2008). Sistem Politik Indonesia Era Reformasi. Yogyakarta:
MedPress, pp. 38-39
8 Gultom, Samuel. op. cit. , pp. 3-4
32 used its military power to force people to accept the compensation of
Rp 250 per square meter.9
The low value of the compensation given by the government became a trigger of public protests. The government unilaterally issued the Central Java Governor Decree No.593.8 / 135/1987 on May 2, 1987 through the Governor of Central Java which also set the compensation value. Most families reject that unilateral action, but the construction of reservoirs was continued to be built. In January 1989, the house and lands of citizens who did not agree with the compensation value was sunk by the government by closing the reservoir sluice.10 People who protest got a variety of intimidation and threats from the security forces. The government also gave a PKI (Indonesian Communist Party) label to residents who refused indemnity. PKI label at the time was a very severe punishment for the community. Those who refused were considered as anti-Pancasila and anti-development and they required to report to Koramil in order to get the phrase "banned organization" or "Ex-Politic Prisoners" in his or her identity (ID card).11 The World Bank as a provider of funds in 2000 stated that they did not know if the regime was using the issue of communism (PKI) to move the residents whose land was inundated by Kedung Ombo.12 Residents did not stay silent and continued the matter to a legal action. The cassation decision of the Supreme Court has canceled the decision of the District Court and the High Court that once defeated the citizens. However, at the time of the Review, the Supreme Court canceled their cassation decision. The hope of the people had to come down with a pool of Kedung Ombo.
The conflict of agaria in an infrastructure development also occurred on the island of salt, Madura. This conflict has caused the deaths of four lives of local residents due to the use of the means of violence by state officials (military). The incident
9 De Guzman, Orlando. Laporan Penelitian: Apakah Ada Hubungan Antara G 30 S dan
Munculnya Mitos Pangeran Samodro di Gunung Kemukus?
http://www.acicis.murdoch.edu.au/hi/field_topics/orlandodeguzman.pdf , pp. 33-34 retrieved on October 5, 2017 at 20.37
10 Gultom, Samuel. op. cit. , p. 4
11 De Guzman, Orlando. op. cit. pp. 35-35
12 World Bank. Recent Experience With Involuntary Resettlement Indonesia - Kedung Ombo http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/124361468771315019/pdf/multi-page.pdf , pp. 1-2 retrieved on October 4, 2017 at 19.00
33 occurred on 25 September 1995 when the construction of the Nipah reservoir demanded the community’s land. People were not involved in the decisions making related to the allocation of agrarian resources of their own. Aspirations of the people considered as defiance by local authorities. The government then issued the threats and intimidation through Sampang Regent Decree No. 89 in 1993 that would involve the security forces in the process of land acquisition.13 On the fateful day (25 September 1993), the aspirations of the people who refused to measure the land unilaterally then dismissed with sharp weapons by security forces without any resistance from the community.
Those two examples of the turmoil of the infrastructure development were a black mark in the management of conflict in Indonesia. These events provide valuable lessons, infrastructure development is not a process which not associated with the community’s socio-cultural situation. It also has explained that the use of state violence to force people to obey will only be asserted that development is a process of structural impoverishment. Moreover, the events in Kedung Ombo and Nipah has illustrated that the dialogue to prevent conflict is essential. In addition, a comprehensive conflict resolution is needed in the stalled dialogue.
Chicken Game and a Sustainable Infrastructure Development Conflict Resolution A dialogue requires the cooperation among the actors involved. This lack of cooperation among the concerned actors will not produce a quality dialogue. Therefore, understanding the importance of cooperation between actors need to get a serious attention. A dialogue also serves as a forum for conflict management and has a variety of alternatives if infrastructure constraints encountered.14 Without it, the dialog will only result in a monologue which potentially turns into a conflict at a later stage. In the context of sustainable infrastructure innovations, the failure of a dialog will only bring up two options: disadvantaged communities and development can not be carried out.
13 Kasus Waduk Nipah http://omahmunir.com/pages-11-kasus-waduk-nipah.html retrieved on October 4, 2017 at 20.00
14 See, Valve, Helena. “Frame Conflicts and the Formulation of Alternatives: Environmental Assessment of an Infrastructure Plan.” ENVIRON IMPACT ASSESS REV 1999;19:125–142, pp. 125- 126
34 A game theory can be an alternative to analyze the importance of cooperation among the stakeholders in infrastructure development projects.15 In this case, a chicken game approach in a game theory is the most appropriate to be used as an instrument of analysis because if only one party contributes then the potential losses that will be shared will be greater.16
0 unit 1 unit 0 unit -3 , -3 6 , -2 1 unit -2 , 6 4 , 4 Figure 1. Chicken game
The above diagram can illustrate the importance of cooperation in building a dialogue.
The existence of parties who do not contribute will only lead to the hopelessness of dialogues. The interested parties should contribute so that the benefits which would be achieved can be optimized.
These equilibriums are along the main diagonal where matching behavior is practiced – that is, either both individuals provide a unit or neither supplies a unit. An assurance game applies if two nations have insufficient firefighters to suppress a forest fire on their common border, but together they possess sufficient firefighters to put out the fire. Some security or pollution pactsmayabide by this minimal threshold scenario so that an assurance game is germane. In one Star Trek episode, two enemy ships had to work in unison to defeat a common threat that neither could defend alone; thus, an assurance game applied.17
Game theory not only can be used as an instrument for the analysis of the importance of cooperation, but also can be used as an instrument to analyze the conflict
15 See, Madani, “Kaveh. Game theory and water resources.” Journal of Hydrology 381 (2010) 225–238, p. 225
16 Sandler, Todd. (2004). Global Collective Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.
26; Peter de Heus, Niek Hoogervorst, Eric van Dijk. “Framing prisoners and chickens: Valence effects in the prisoner’s dilemma and the chicken game.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46 (2010) 736–742, p. 737;
17 Sandler, Todd. ibid. p. 25
35 in the context of conflict resolution.18 Although the analysis can be used as an instrument for conflict resolution in infrastructure development, the use of game theory in various stages of development is not enriched the alternatives and in this case is functioned as conflict prevention. Alternatives needed for a dialogue as well as possible, the potential for conflict when infrastructure development is in progress or has been done is still remain. Therefore, it is necessary to anticipate the next step.
Comprehensive conflict resolution needs to be designed with attention to the human aspect as the main reference.
The increasing interaction of urban and rural infrastructure systems requires more intense coordination between planning organizations with quite diverse objectives. Sustainability, safety, and economic planning have become indispensable focus points. Developing e€ective infrastructure plans means tnding a compromise between safety, economic, and environmental aspects, and having di€erent organizations agree on a course of action. The way that organizations develop plans, deal with uncertainties, and look at safety is strongly a€ected by the management culture of the di€erent organizations (Turner, 1978).19
Conflict is a natural thing, but in the infrastructure development context the agrarian conflict is a universal phenomenon because it relates to life.20 However, its existence should be limited within a certain tolerance in order not to harm all parties. If the dialog has been done according to the plan and remains a conflict on a large scale, it is necessary to apply a further mechanism in the form of conflict resolution. Conflict in the development of infrastructure has its own characteristics. Conflicts can occur in all parties at each stage. However, the conflict between the executive and the community is
18 Azin Shakiba Barougha, Mojtaba Valinejad Shoubia, Moohammad Javad Emami Skardib.
“Application of Game Theory Approach in Solving the Construction Project Conflicts.” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 58 (2012) 1586 – 1593, pp. 1586-1591
19 J.S. Timmermans & G.E.G. Beroggi. “Conflict resolution in sustainable infrastructure management.” Safety Science 35 (2000) 175-192, pp. 175-176
20 Yahia Omar Adama,∗, Jürgen Pretzschb, Dietrich Darr. “Land use conflicts in central Sudan:
Perception and local coping mechanisms.” retrieved http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.06.006 on October 2, 2017 at 20.00, p. 1
36 the biggest challenge that must be faced when there is an aggrieved party (community).
Comprehensive conflict resolution is necessary to limit the scale and does not cause casualties to preserve the urgency of infrastructure development. It needs a change of paradigm in the conflict resolution which will be built from the solid peace model into a reconciliation. It means that the conflict resolution not only to restore the benefits of the aggrieved party. Moreover, it also restore the shaky relations due to conflict. "Like stable peace, reconciliation requires a long process through the which the parties ‘form new relations of peaceful coexistence based on mutual trust and acceptance, cooperation, and consideration of each other's needs’”.21
Conflict resolution is a popular mechanism to resolve the ongoing problems and involve more than one party. Many methods can be taken to implement the resolution of the conflict.
Conflict resolution has made an impact in many ways. Mediation, arbitration, policy dialogues, facilitated consensus-building processes, school-based conflict resolution programs, restorative justice efforts, collaborative law projects, shared neutrals programs, and the like are an accepted and still growing feature of the decision- making and dispute resolution landscape.22
In the context of sustainable infrastructure development conflict resolution, a method that has been used need to be more empowered. Not just looking for a win-win solution, but how the two or more parties which in conflict can utilize the existing use value of the infrastructure. In addition, empowerment (reconciliation) is also intended that the executors of the infrastructure development in the future can still innovate. They are expected to continue to innovate and stop at one point due to the exhausting conflict.
A sustainable infrastructure development must consider all aspects that may occur. The development of Kedung Ombo and Nipah are the example of how inadequate conflicts management in an infrastructure project. Coercive power approach in the two incidents are very detrimental to the public so that the original purpose of the
21 Bar-Siman-Tov, Yaacov. “Dialectics between Stable Peace and Reconciliation.” Bar-Siman- Tov, Yaacov (ed.). (2004). From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., p. 72
22 Mayer, Bernard S. (2004). Beyond Neutrality: Confronting the Crisis in Conflict Resolution.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass A Wiley Imprint, p. 9
37 development was not achieved. Agrarian conflict resolution as a result of infrastructure development needs to have a serious concern as the basis for further policy development and project planning.23 Moreover, in the socio-cultural context in Indonesia, land has a very important role for individuals and communities. Land is something that must be preserved as could as possible because it contains memory and hope.24 Issue of land acquisition is a crucial point in the development of infrastructure that uses public lands.
Therefore, at this point, the chicken game approach and conflict resolution needs to be designed so that the project could be on target.
Conclusion
An innovation in sustainable infrastructure development acceleration requires a stability. Various potential conflicts must be mapped in advance as a precaution if we have a bottleneck in the implementation of the project. Cooperation among interested parties must be made in order to achieve the same benefit. A chicken game approach as part of game theory can be an instrument of analysis and justification of the importance of the cooperation of all related parties. All parties must have the willingness to engage in a dialogue in order to find out each individual interests. This is necessary so that the existing plan can be executed optimally. Dialogue and cooperation has not been fully guarantee the absence of conflict on the next stage. To that end, the resolution of the conflict must be taken to avoid casualties. It needs to implement a method of conflict resolution which not only creates stability, but also empowers all parties involved.
Reconciliation between conflicting parties is essential so that innovation and sustainable infrastructure development is not hampered. A coercive power approach should be abandoned because it will only cause trauma in the community. In addition, it also can harm the executor as judged incompetent in implementing a sustainable infrastructure development.
23 Tudor, Constantina Alina, et. al. “How successful is the resolution of land-use conflicts? A comparison of cases from Switzerland and Romania.” Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125-136, p. 126
24 Laporan Akhir http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/pkj_2012_-_9.pdf , p. 1 retrieved on October 4, 2017 at 19.15
38 References
Applied Geography 47 (2014) 125-136, p. 126
As Clear as Mud: Understanding the Root of Conflicts and Problems in Indonesia’s Land Tenure Policy
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFS/PP07287.pdf
Bar-Siman-Tov, Yaacov (ed.). (2004). From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
De Guzman, Orlando. Laporan Penelitian: Apakah Ada Hubungan Antara G 30 S dan Munculnya Mitos Pangeran Samodro di Gunung Kemukus?
http://www.acicis.murdoch.edu.au/hi/field_topics/orlandodeguzman.pdf
ENVIRON IMPACT ASSESS REV 1999;19:125–142
Galudra, Gamma, Chip Fay , and Martua Sirait. As Clear as Mud: Understanding the Root of Conflicts and Problems in Indonesia’s Land Tenure Policy
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFS/PP07287.pdf
Gultom, Samuel. (2003). Mengadili Korban: Praktek Pembenaran Terhadap kekerasan Negara. Jakarta: Elsam
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46 (2010) 736–742 Journal of Hydrology 381 (2010) 225–238
Kasus Waduk Nipah http://omahmunir.com/pages-11-kasus-waduk-nipah.html Laporan Akhir http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/pkj_2012_-_9.pdf
39 Lucas, Anton&Warren, Carol. Land for the People: The State and Agrarian Conflict in
Indonesia
http://www.ohioswallow.com/extras/9780896802872_toc_and_chapter_01.pdf
Mayer, Bernard S. (2004). Beyond Neutrality: Confronting the Crisis in Conflict Resolution. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass A Wiley Imprint\
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 58 (2012) 1586 – 1593
Puspito, Nanang T. et. al. (eds.). (2011). Pendidikan Anti-korupsi untuk Perguruan Tinggi. Jakarta: Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi Bagian Hukum Kepegawaian
Safety Science 35 (2000) 175-192
Sandler, Todd. (2004). Global Collective Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Suku Anak Dalam: Perubahan yang Memiskinkan http://pusaka.or.id/suku-anak-dalam- perubahan-yang-memiskinkan/
Winarno, MA, Prof. Dr. Budi. (2008). Sistem Politik Indonesia Era Reformasi.
Yogyakarta: MedPress
World Bank. Recent Experience With Involuntary Resettlement Indonesia - Kedung Ombo http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1998/06/02/00 0009265_3980716170213/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf ,
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