Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences

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Dalhousie University Department of Process Engineering and Applied Science, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

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Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India

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University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy

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Original article

Producer gas stove: Design, fabrication, and evaluation of thermal performance

A.A.P. Susastriawan

^⇑

, Y. Purwanto, B.W. Sidharta, G. Wahyu, T. Trisna, R.A. Setiawan

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Institut Sains dan Teknologi AKPRIND, Indonesia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 13 July 2021 Accepted 26 October 2021 Available online xxxx

Keywords:

Bluff-body Gasifier Rice husk Sawdust Stove

a b s t r a c t

Traditional biomass stoves are widely used for cooking purposes in developing countries, due to their simple construction. However, the problems of low thermal efficiency, large feedstock consumption, and high pollutant emission are encountered in the conventional design. The gasification-based stove has also been presently and highly considered when encountering these problems. Therefore, this study aims to: (1) develop a producer gas stove, and (2) investigate the effect of bluff-body shape, equivalence ratio, and feedstock on the thermal performance of the stove. The results showed that the performance of the producer gas stove was affected by the bluff-body shape of the burner, equivalence ratio, and feedstock type. Stable flames were further observed when the bluff body B was attached to the burner. The highest thermal performance was obtained by using a bluff body B, operated at an equivalence ratio of 0.5 with blended feedstock of rice husk-sawdust. In addition, the highest heating rate and thermal efficiencies were 2.27 kW and 17.6%, respectively.

Ó2021 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

According to Jain & Sheth (2019), one-seventh of the world energy demands were supplied from biomass resources, which originated from agricultural, forestry, industry, as well as solid municipal (MSW) wastes, respectively. This is because the conver- sion of waste to energy is a viable method in managing MSW and renewable power utilization (Ouda et al., 2017). The low-density biomass energy is often enhanced by converting the waste into a high-density fuel, through solar-pyrolysis technology (Ndukwu et al.). This is carried out by using an anaerobic fermentation digester to produce biogas (Okonkwo et al., 2018). In developing countries, biomass waste is directly used for heating and cooking purposes. Furthermore, traditional biomass stoves are widely known to be used for cooking purposes, due to their simple construction. According to L’Orange et al. (2012), a primitive cook stove was used by the primary world’s population to burn biomass

fuel. This indicates that the traditional tool has low thermal efficiency, large fuel consumption, and high pollutant emissions (Chen et al., 2016). Meanwhile, primary air is often naturally aspirated in a conventional stove. In the comparisons between natural and forced draft configurations,Kirch et al. (2016)stated that con- trollable airflow should be used at various combustion phases, to achieve high efficiency and low emissions cooking stove.

Based on encountering the problems of a conventional stove, a producer gas stove has been developed. The working principle of this tool indicates that biomass is gasified in the reactor, to produce syngas, which is burnt to obtain producer gas flame in the burner. The working principle differences between a conventional and gasified stove are further explained by the schematic diagram inFig. 1.In a traditional stove, several characteristics are observed, namely (i) excess air is naturally or forcedly supplied, (ii) biomass experiences direct combustion, (iii) fuel gas and heat are often the product. However, deficient air is supplied to the producer gas stove, as biomass is found to experience gasification. Producer gas is also a product, with its combustion in the burner providing gaseous flame and heat. This gaseous combustion produces less emission than the direct combustion of solid biomass fuel (Hernández, et al., 2010).

Gasification is the thermo-chemical process of converting solid fuel into a combustible gas (producer gas), through the reactions of drying, pyrolysis, oxidation, and reduction (Basu, 2010;

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2021.10.009

1018-3639/Ó2021 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

⇑Corresponding author.

E-mail address:[email protected](A.A.P. Susastriawan).

Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

Production and hosting by Elsevier

Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available atScienceDirect

Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m

Please cite this article as: A.A.P. Susastriawan, Y. Purwanto, B.W. Sidharta et al., Producer gas stove: Design, fabrication, and evaluation of thermal performance, Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2021.10.009

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Khisore, 2008). Heat is also obtained from the oxidation reaction and released for drying, pyrolysis, and reduction. Moreover, the energy content in the producer gas is determined by the composition of combustible compounds (CO, H2, and CH4), which are formed during the process of reduction, through the Boudourd (Eq. (1)), Water-Gas (Eq. (2)), W-G (Water-Gas) Shift (Eq. (3)), and Methane (Eq. (4)) reactions, respectively (Basu, 2010). The higher the composition of the combustible compound, the greater the energy content of the producer gas.

CþCO2$2COþ172 kJ=mol ð1Þ

CþH2O$COþH2þ131 kJ=mol ð2Þ COþH2O$CO2þH241;2 kJ=mol ð3Þ

Cþ2H2$CH474;8kJ=mol ð4Þ

The feedstock size and gasification temperature are two of the various parameters that affect the production of CO, H2, and CH4. This is because the smaller size of the biomass has a larger heat transfer surface area, which increases the rate of released volatiles during the pyrolysis process (Hernández et al., 2010). For the same air–fuel ratio, the rate of consumption is higher for smaller size biomass. This is because the large biomass decreases the gasification process, leading to the production of less producer gas (Patel et al., 2014). Meanwhile, the uniform biomass size affects the performance of the gasifier (Belonio, 2005). This indicates that the more uniform the size of the biomass, the higher the efficiency of the gasifier. Based on the variations in different geographical regions, the improved cookstoves should be considerately compat- ible with several biomass fuels (Raman et al., 2013). Furthermore, at high gasification temperature, the tar cracking process and the heating syngas value are found to be better and improved (Liu et al., 2012). This is because the percentages of H2and CO in producer gas improves with the increase of the gasification temperature (Wang et al., 2015), which is further affected by the equivalence ratio. According toKaupp & Goss (1981), the equivalence ratio of 0.2–0.4 was found to be effective for biomass gasification. Using higher ratios, oxygen availability is observed to increase, leading to the enhancement of the oxidation rate. This causes the release of more heat during oxidation, therefore, leading to increased gasification temperature (Guo et al., 2014).

Sutar et al. (2016), developed a gasifier-based domestic stove with a nominal capacity of 2.5 kW, and also a maximum efficiency of approximately 80%. The results showed that the performance of the tool was affected by the surface area of the reaction and reactor temperature. The Top Lit Updraft (TLUD) stove was also developed by Obi et al. (2019) and had a better performance compared to the traditional stove. Furthermore, compressed air should be used and controlled using a rotameter, to obtain the proper primary and secondary prerequisites for gasification and combustion (De La Hoz et al., 2017).Tryner et al. (2014), further investigated the effect of fuel type on the emission and efficiency of the TLUD stove, with the highest measured thermal performance observed at 42%.

Burner design also plays an important role in achieving the high thermal efficiency of the producer gas stove. The main difference between an LPG and producer gas burner is based on the high and low utilization of velocity jets at ambient temperature and 100–300°C, respectively (Sutar et al., 2016). Besides the low velocity, the producer gas burner also uses high mass flow rate and buoyant jets. Several designs of this tool have been further reported, such as partially aerated and naturally aspirated construction (Sutar et al., 2016), as well as producer gas combustor and premixed burners, respectively (Dattarajan et al., 2014; Bhoi

& Channiwala, 2008; Punnarapong et al., 2017). Also, the maximum efficiency of the premixed burner at producer gas flow rate and equivalence ratio is 24.3 Nm/h and 0.84 (Punnarapong et al., 2017).

The producer gas from biomass gasification generally has a lower heating value within the range of 3–7 MJ/kg. This often gen- erates less flame temperature and a low-intensity thermal field that are beneficial in reducing warm NOx (Chanphavong &

Zainal, 2019). However, the disadvantages of low heating value fuel, like syngas, are the narrow flammability limits and lack of flame stability (Uchman & Werle, 2016). The limit of the flame stability also depends on the composition of the syngas (Saediamiri et al., 2017). Moreover, the thermo-diffusivity of the hydrogen sig- nificantly enhances stability and destabilize lean flames. The study ofZhen et al. (2013), found that the addition of 5% hydrogen on biogas enhanced flame stability. The results showed that the flammability limits of the syngas burner were established between 40 and 55 (Bhoi & Channiwala, 2008), as the peak burning rate of the producer gas proved faster than those of the conventional fuels, such as isooctane and methane (Serrano et al., 2008).

Several studies were also reported on the bluff body, to encoun- ter the narrow flame stability limit of producer gas. Kumar &

Mishra (2008), investigated the effect of bluff body shape on an LPG–H2jet diffusion flame. The results showed that flame length increased with the improving lip thickness of the bluff body, which provides positive and negative effects on flame stability and NOx emission, respectively. Another study was conducted byEsquiva- Dano et al. (2001), showing that the tulip-shaped bluff body pro- moted an enlargement of the stabilization domain, and empha- sized a specific region known as the laminar ring flame.

Meanwhile, the stabilization process was modified at the beginning of the disk, due to strong reverse velocities. The results showed that two parameters controlled the stabilization process of non-premixed flames, i.e., the gas jet to air velocity ratio and the bluff-body shape.

Novelty Statement

Several biomass stoves were successfully designed and used worldwide. However, they were generally conventional tools based on direct combustion. This led to the limited reports on gasification-based stoves. Therefore, a gasifier-based stove is designed, fabricated, and tested in this study. This aims to investigate the effect of bluff-body shape, equivalence ratio, and feedstock, on the thermal performance of the stove.

Fig. 1.Schematic diagram of the stoves.

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2. Methodology

2.1. Design and fabrication of the stove

Based on the prototypical operation in the batch mode, a 3 kg gasified stove was designed and fabricated. This was created from a Mild Steel cylinder with a diameter and height of 450 and 1000 mm, respectively, according to the design calculation of Guangul et al. (2012). The perforated grate was also produced from a Mild Steel plate with 5 mm thickness. In addition, the primary air inlet and ash outlet were provided at the bottom of the stove. Fur- thermore, a hopper was provided to feed the biomass feedstock into the gasifier, with the burner being attached at the top of the stove. The combustible gaseous compound was then burnt in the burner, to generate producer gas flame. An isometric and orthogonal view of the stove is shown inFig. 2.

2.2. Characterization of the feedstocks

The feedstocks in this study were the rice husk and sawdust wastes collected from the milling and wood processing industries in Bantul Yogyakarta, Indonesia. These locations were similar to those in the study ofSusastriawan et al. (2018). Based on this condition, the ultimate properties of the feedstock were similar to the rice husk and sawdust in previous studies, as shown inTable 1.In addition, the percentages of C, H, O, N, and S, were important in obtaining the required primary airflow rate for provided equivalence ratio.

2.3. Experimental work

Fig. 3(a) and (b) showed the experimental setup without and with Water Boiling Test (WBT), respectively. The blower was also used to supply air for gasification, while the rotameter was used to control the required flow rate. The K-type thermocouples were further used to measure the axial (T1, T2, and T3), flame (Tf), and water (Tw) temperatures of the stove in the WBT, respectively.

Also, the T1, T2, and T3were measured at 150, 300, and 450 mm above the grate, respectively, with the information being logged in a data logger Graphtec 240. In this study, the Chinese WBT (Chen et al., 2016) was adopted to obtain flame temperature, heating rate, and thermal efficiency. The aims of this experimental study were also divided into two parts, i.e. (1)investigating the effect of the bluff-body burner on the thermal performance of the stove,(2)investigating the effect of equivalence ratio and feedstock type on the thermal performance of the stove.

2.3.1. Investigation on the effect of the bluff-body

Three different bluff bodies, i.e. A, B, and C, were further tested in this study, with their shapes and technical drawings shown in Fig. 4.The main differences between these bodies were based on the height and diameter of the flame holder. The stove was operated on a 3 kg rice husk, at an equivalence ratio of 0.5. Firstly, the stove was tested without WBT to capture a flame image every 15 mins. Secondly, it was tested with WBT to obtain the heating rate and thermal efficiency of the producer gas stove, which were calculated using Eq.(5) and (6).

Q¼mwcp;wðTbTiÞ þmw;vh_fg;w ð5Þ

g

¼ Q mfHHVf

100% ð6Þ

where mw,v= the mass of water vapor, hfg,w= the heat of water vapor at normal boiling point (2260 kJ/kg), mw= the mass of water in the pot (kg), cp,w, = the specific heat of water (4.2 kJ/kg.°C), Tband Ti= the boiling and initial temperatures of water (°C), mf= the mass

Fig. 2.Photograph and orthogonal view of the producer gas stove (unit: mm).

Table 1

Ultimate property of the feedstocks (Susastriawan et al., 2018).

Ultimate property Rice husk Sawdust ASTM Standard

C (wt,%,adb) 34.05 44.99 D 5373

H (wt,%,adb) 5.35 6.68 D 5373

O (wt,%,adb) 39.14 45.62 D 3176

N (wt,%,adb) 0.17 – D 5373

S (wt,%,adb) 0.12 0.74 D 4239

HHV (MJ/kg) 13.393 17.577 D 5865

Fig. 3.Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

Fig. 4.The bluff-bodies and dimension (unit: mm).

A.A.P. Susastriawan, Y. Purwanto, B.W. Sidharta et al. Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

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of the feedstock (kg), and HHVf= the higher heating value of the feedstock (kJ/kg).

2.3.2. Investigation on the effect of equivalence ratio and feedstock In the second part, the stove was tested on the feedstocks of rice husk, sawdust, and a blend of both (1:1 by weight) with WBT (setup 3b). Firstly, the stove was tested on rice husk at equivalence ratios of 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6. This equivalence ratio is defined as a pro- portion between the actual and combustible stoichiometric ([A/

F]_st) air-fuels used in gasification. The equivalence ratio is also for- mulated bySheth & Babu (2009), as follows,

/¼½A=Fact

½A=F_st ð7Þ

Secondly, the stove was tested using the sawdust and the blend at an equivalence ratio of 0.5. All the tests were notably conducted using the bluff-body B burner, as the axial temperature, T1, T2, and T₃, were observed and analyzed. In addition, the heat rate and thermal efficiency of the stove were calculated using Eq.(5) and (6), with results further compared to determine the effect of equivalence ratio and feedstock on the performance of the producer gas stove.

2.4. Data analysis

The gasification process that occurred in the reactor was determined using the profile of T1, T2, and T3at 5, 15, 30, and 45 mins.

The flame image and length were also observed at 15, 30, and 45 mins. Afterwards, the gasifier-stove was tested using the Chinese WBT method, where heating rate and thermal efficiency were calculated using Eq.(5) and (6), respectively.

3. Results and discussion 3.1. An effect of bluff-body shape

Fig. 5showed the axial temperatures (T1, T2, T3) of the reactor at 1 h, with the profiles found to be generally similar for all three burners. After attaining maximum values, the temperatures declined till the feedstock became burnt. The fast increase of T1

was further due to the ignition of the feedstock and air supplied being performed at the bottom of the reactor. Therefore, oxidation initially occurred at the bottom of the reactor, releasing the heat needed to increase T1. Afterwards, the oxidation zone moved upward to the green feedstock sequentially enhancing T2and T3, leading to the reduction of T1

Based onFig. 6,the gasification process occurring in the reactor is determined using the profiles of T₁, T₂, and T₃at 5, 15, 30, and 45 mins. This indicated that the process effectively occurred after 15 mins, where the rice husk temperature of 600–800°C was attained.

From 15 to 30 mins, the gasification zone was observed at 300 mm above the grate, which further shifted to 450 mm in the 45th mins.

Based on Fig. 7, the flame images at 15, 30, and 45 mins for Burners A, B, and C, were presented, respectively. This indicated that smoky flames were observed early at 15 mins, for the use of Burners A, B, and C. Due to the decreased temperature of the reactor temperature and the onset of the gasification process, more smoke was generated at 15 mins. Also, the smoke and the producer gas increased to the burner, leading to a smoky flame. According to the turbulent jet emission (Lee and Chu, 2003), the flame structure was dominated by the momentum of the producer at 15 mins, therefore observed as a lit-off smoky fire. After 15 mins, these flames became clear without smoke, except for burner C at 45 mins. This clarity was due to the enhancement and achievement of the gasification temperature by the reactor. The results showed

the occurrence of a better-gasified process and the formation of more combustible compounds responsible for clear flames. At this time, the flame was properly attached to the burner lip, and the buoyant effect was in line with the jet momentum effect. Mean- while, the plume regions were observed at the 45th mins. This indicated that the buoyant effect had a stronger impact than the momentum, leading to the dominance of the flames by resilient forces. The smoky flame for Burner C was based on the oxidation zone shifting further to the higher location, as shown inFig. 6.

Based onFig. 7, different flame lengths were observed for Bur- ner A, B, and C. However, similar trends were found for all burners, i.e., flame length decreased and increased at 30 and 45 mins. Due to better gasification and similar buoyant force with jet momentum, stable flames occurred at the 30th min. Meanwhile, the flame length increased in the 45th min, based on the enhancement of air pressure from the blower. In addition, the feedstock was almost gasified at this time, reducing flow resistance to the gasification air.

The gasifier stove was further tested using the Chinese WBT method after the flame images were obtained. Using Burners A, B, and C, these images, as well as flame and water temperatures under boiling test conditions, are shown in Fig. 8. The results showed that the images were obtained at the 30th min, indicating that the flame temperatures increased at the beginning of all burner designs, and declined after 30 mins at the middle of the test.

FromFig. 7, the reduction of smoky flame increased temperature at the initial stage to 30 mins. However,the flame temperature of burner B was more stable than that of A and C. This temperature for all burners further ranged from 400 to 600°C. In addition, the

reduction of T

1

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Burner A T1 T2 T3 ( erutarepmeTo )C

Time (minute)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Burner B T1 T2 T3 ( erutarepmeTo )C

Time (minute)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Burner C T1 T2 T3 ( erutarepmeTo )C

Time (minute)

Fig. 5.The temperature profile of the reactor.

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flame temperatures in this study were comparable with that of the producer gas in a premixed burner, i.e., 500–700 °C (Bhoi &

Channiwala, 2008).

The heat transfers to the WBT and thermal efficiency are shown inFig. 9. This showed that the rates of heat transferred to the WBT within 60 mins were 1250, 1380, and 1320 W, for the use of burners A, B, and C, respectively. More flammable heat was also transferred to the WBT during the use of Burner B, indicating a relatively stable temperature than that of A and C. During the use of this burner (Burner B), more heat transfer to the WBT further provided higher water vapors. Therefore, burner B had the highest thermal efficiency than others, although the difference was insignificant.

In addition, Burners A, B, and C had thermal efficiency values of 11.2%, 12.3%, and 11.8%, respectively.

0 200 400 600 800 1000 t = 5 minute

Burner A Burner B Burner C

Temperature (

^o

C) ) m m( r ot c a er e ht f o si x a l ai x A Grate

Burner

T1 T3 T2

0 200 400 600 800 1000 t = 15 minute

Burner A Burner B Burner C

Temperature (

^o

C) ) m m( r ot c a er e ht f o si x a l ai x A Grate

Burner

T1 T2 T3

0 200 400 600 800 1000 t = 30 minute

Burner A Burner B Burner C

Temperature (

^o

C) ) m m( r ot c a er e ht f o si x a l ai x A Grate

Burner

T1 T2 T3

0 200 400 600 800 1000 t = 45 minute Burner A

Burner B Burner C

Temperature (

^o

C) ) m m( r ot c a er e ht f o si x a l ai x A Grate

Burner

T1 T2 T3

Fig. 6.The axial temperature profile of the reactor.

Fig. 7.Flame image and length.

0 200 400 600 800

0 50 100 150 200

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

( .pmeT emalFoC) ( .pmeT retaWoC)

Time (minute) Flame

Water

0 200 400 600 800

0 50 100 150 200

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Water

0 200 400 600 800

0 50 100 150 200

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Water

Fig. 8.Flame image and temperature during water boiling test.

5

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3.2. An effect of equivalence ratio and feedstock on thermal performance

Fig. 10shows an axial temperature profile of the rice husk stove, at an equivalence ratio of 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6. This indicated that T1at 150 mm initially increased for all observed ratios above the grate, accompanied by T2and T3at 300 and 450 mm, respectively. The sequential trend within these temperatures was in line with the updraft gasifier stove. In this gasifier, air and producer gas flowed upwards while the feedstock moved downwards. This feedstock is further ignited at the bottom of the gasifier, i.e. near the grate,

leading to the occurrence of oxidation at this location for the first time. The heat released by this oxidation process also increased the zonal temperature and sustained the reaction. Moreover, some amount of heat was transferred to the green feedstock, i.e., 150 mm above the grate, leading to the occurrence of the oxidation process at this location. Based on this condition, T1was observed to increase faster. Also, several heats were transferred to the reduction zone, to form combustible gases (CO, H2, and CH4). Therefore, the syngas flowed to the burner and generated flame. Since the feedstock at 150 mm and below had been burnt, the oxidation zone further shifted higher, i.e., 300 mm above the grate. This led to the increase and decrease of temperatures at 300 mm (T2) and under- neath (T1), respectively.

According to Fig. 10and typical rice husk temperature (600–

800°C), the gasification zone was located at 300 mm above the grate, for the equivalence ratio of 0.4. This zone initially originated at 150 mm and shifted to 300 mm above the grate, for the equivalence ratio of 0.5 and 0.6, respectively. For the ratio of 0.4, the heat released by the oxidation process was sufficiently lower in attaining the gasification temperature at T₁. Due to the elevated flow of primary air, the heat from the T1zone and oxidation process was elevated to T2. The temperature in this zone also increased and reached gasification when additional heat was released from the T1zone. Therefore, the gasification process occurred at 300 mm above the grate. Meanwhile, more complete oxidation occurred at T1 when the equivalence ratio extended to 0.5 and 0.6. For reaching complete oxidation, more oxygen was made available in a higher equivalence ratio. As the oxidation zone moved upwards, the T2temperature increased and reached gasification.

According to Fig. 11, an axial temperature profile of the rice husk, sawdust, and blended (rice husk-sawdust; 1:1 by mass) stoves at an equivalence ratio of 0.5 is observed. This indicated a

0 400 800 1200 1600 2000

0 20 40 60 80 100

1 2 3

( . p me T e m al F

o

) W( et a R t ae H ; ) C ) %( yc ne ic if f E

Burner Design Heat rate

Flame

Efficiency

A B C

Fig. 9.The average flame temperature and the WBT test.

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 5 10 15 20

Ø = 0.4 T1 T2 T3

( erutarepmeTo C)

Time (minute)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 5 10 15 20

Ø = 0.5 T1 T2 T3

Time (minute)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 5 10 15 20

Ø = 0.6 T1 T2 T3

Time (minute)

Fig. 10.Axial temperature profile at a various equivalence ratio.

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 5 10 15

Rice Husk T1 T2 T3

Time (minute)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 5 10 15 20

Sawdust T1 T2 T3

Time (minute)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 5 10 15 20

Blend T1 T2 T3

Time (minute)

Fig. 11.Axial temperature profile using various feedstock.

6

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similar increasing temperature trend for T1, T2, T3, based on the use of rice husk, sawdust, and blended feedstocks. The temperature of T1was found to initially increase, accompanied by T2and T3. How- ever, the gasification zones were located at different heights. For the rice husk, this zone was initially located at T1, then shifted to T2. Meanwhile, the zone remained at T1for the sawdust and rice husk. These were due to the free flow of the sawdust and the blend during the process. The green sawdust and the blend also moved downwards when the lower feedstock had been oxidized. From Fig. 11, the gasification temperature of rice husk was observed at 800°C, while the sawdust and blend were 600°C. Also,the stable gasification process occurred for the feedstock of the blend. In addition, the stable temperatures of T1, T2,and T3were observed after 8 mins for the blended feedstock.

Heating rate is defined as the amount of useful heat transferred to the WBT, to boil the water. This is calculated using Eq. (5), except for the test at an equivalence ratio of 0.6. The calculation of this factor at an equivalence ratio of 0.6 only considered sensible heat, i.e., the first term of Eq.(5). This was because the WBT did not reach boiling temperature through the equivalence ratio of 0.6.

Fig. 12(a)further presented the heating rate by using rice husk at various equivalence ratios. Meanwhile,Fig. 12(b)provided the val-

ues for the use of various feedstocks at an equivalence ratio of 0.5.

The highest and lowest heating rates in this study were obtained using the equivalence ratio of 0.5 and 0.6, i.e., 1.81 and 1.51 kW, respectively. This low value was due to the small and yellow flame during the test. For the analysis with different feedstocks, the heating rate of the blend was the highest among others. The heating rate with the use of rice husk, sawdust, and the blend were 1.81, 2.06, and 2.27 kW, respectively. In addition, a stable gasification process and flame caused the transfer of more heat to the WBT after 8 mins, during the blend test, leading to the production of the highest heating rate.

Fig. 13shows the thermal efficiency graphs of the stove at various equivalence ratios and feedstocks. Since this efficiency is directly and inversely proportional to the heating rate and higher feedstock value, the trend at various equivalence ratios was similar to that of the rice husk test (Fig. 12a). The highest heating rate was also attained at the equivalence ratio of 0.5, which was in line with the results ofFig. 12a. Moreover, the thermal efficiencies of the rice husk stove at the equivalence ratio of 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6, were 15.3%, 16.2%, and 13.5%, respectively.

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

0.4 0.5 0.6

a)

) W k( et ar t ae H

Equivalence ratio

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 b)

) W k( et ar t ae H

Feedstock

Rice husk Sawdust Blend

Fig. 12.Heating rate.

0 5 10 15 20 25

0.4 0.5 0.6

a)

) %( yc ne ic if fe l a mr e h T

Equivalence ratio

0 5 10 15 20 25

) %( yc ne ic if f E l a mr e h T

Feedstock

Rice husk Sawdust Blend

b)

Fig. 13.Thermal efficiency.

7

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Meanwhile, a different trend between thermal efficiency and heating rate was observed for the test, using various feedstock.

Although the heating rate with sawdust was higher than that of the rice husk, its thermal efficiency was much lower. This was due to the sawdust having a higher gross heating value (17.577 MJ/kg) than the rice husk (13.393 MJ/kg). Therefore, the gross heating value provided an inverse effect on thermal efficiency, according to Eq.(6).

In comparison with similar gasifier-based tools, the thermal efficiencies of this present stove were lower than that of the Top Lit Updraft (TLUD), which was observed at 42% and reported by Tryner et al. (2014). However, the thermal efficiencies of this present stove were higher than that ofObi et al. (2016), which was reportedly 11.20%.

4. Conclusion

Based on this study, the producer gas stove was designed and fabricated for the utilization of the rice husk and sawdust wastes, which were observed as renewable energy sources. The gasifier was generally and successfully tested on the feedstocks of rice husk, sawdust, and the blend (rice husk-sawdust; 1:1 by mass), without any problems. From the investigation of the effect of bluff-body, equivalence ratio, and feedstock on the thermal performance of the stove, the following conclusions were obtained:

1. The stable flame was observed when bluff-body B was attached to the burner. Also, the optimum dimension of the bluff body C was found to be 25 and 69 mm of lip thickness and diameter, respectively.

2. The equivalence ratio provided a moderate effect on the performance of the stove. The heating rate and thermal efficiency of the rice husk stove were also the highest at an equivalence ratio of 0.5. In addition, the maximum heating rate and thermal efficiency at this condition were 1.81 kW and 16.2%, respectively.

3. Feedstock type also provided a moderate impact on the performance of the gasifier stove. This showed that the blend of rice husk-sawdust generated the highest heating rate and thermal efficiency at the equivalence ratio of 0.5. Also, the heating rate and thermal efficiency of the stove for the blend were 2.27 kW and 17.6%, respectively.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgment

The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology, the Republic of Indonesia, for the finan- cial support through the scheme of Penelitian Dasar Unggulan Per- guruan Tinggi (PDUPT) SP DIPA-023.17.1.690439/2021. The authors are also grateful to LLDIKTI V Yogyakarta and LPPM IST.

AKPRIND, for the administrative support during this study.

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Cites per document Year Value Cites / Doc. (4 years) 1999 0.113 Cites / Doc. (4 years) 2000 0.076 Cites / Doc. (4 years) 2001 0.200 Cites / Doc. (4 years) 2002 0.096 Cites / Doc. (4 years) 2003 0.056 Cites / Doc. (4 years) 2004 0.036 Cites / Doc. (4 years) 2005 0.061 Cites / Doc. (4 years) 2006 0.025 Cites / Doc. (4 years) 2007 0.000

Ci / D (4 ) 2008 0 036

self-citations received by a journal's published documents during the three previous years.

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% International Collaboration

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Year International Collaboration 1999 5.88

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Uncited documents 1999 55 Uncited documents 2000 52 Uncited documents 2001 49 Uncited documents 2002 50

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1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 0

2 4 6

0 600 1.2k

1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 0

3 6

1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 0

20 40

1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 0

100 200

1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020 0

100 200