NUTRITIONAL APPLICATIONS in EXERCISE and SPORT

Nutrition in Exercise and Sport, Second Edition, Ira Wolinsky and James F. Nutrition Applied to Injury Rehabilitation and Sports Medicine, Luke Bucci. Nutritional applications in exercise and sport / edited by Ira Wolinsky, Judy A. Nutrition in exercise and sport).

Contributors

Acknowledgments

Due to the increasing age range of active individuals, it is increasingly important to recognize the differences in the nutritional needs of these individuals in order to meet not only the needs of normal physiological processes, but also the needs of exercise and physical activity. Overall dietary intake affects not only training and performance, but also an individual's strength and endurance.

P ART I Nutritional Concerns of Athletes

CHAPTER 2 Nutritional Concerns of Pregnant and

INTRODUCTION
MATERNAL AND FETAL RESPONSES TO EXERCISE
Uterine Blood Flow
Maternal Body Temperature
Alterations in Carbohydrate Metabolism

EXERCISE DURING PREGNANCY: THEORETICAL RISKS AND POSSIBLE BENEFITS

Theoretical Fetal Risks
Potential Maternal Risks
Possible Maternal Benefits

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EXERCISE DURING PREGNANCY
RECOMMENDED WEIGHT GAIN AND ESTIMATED ENERGY AND NUTRIENT NEEDS DURING PREGNANCY

Weight Gain
Energy
Estimating Energy Needs for the Exercising Pregnant Woman
Nutrient Requirements During Pregnancy
Nutrient Intakes of Women During Pregnancy
Nutrient Supplementation
Nutrient Needs — General Recommendations
Non-Nutrients — Caffeine and Alcohol

Ergogenic Aids
EXERCISE DURING LACTATION

Effect of Exercise on Milk Quantity
Exercise and its Effects on Selected Immunological Properties of Breast Milk Human breast milk contains immunoglobulins that help fight disease. Immunoglobulin A (IgA),

ENERGY, WEIGHT LOSS, AND NUTRIENT NEEDS FOR WOMEN DURING LACTATION

Energy
Weight Loss During Lactation — Is It Safe?
Nutrient Requirements

SUMMARY

Selected maternal and fetal responses to exercise and the proposed risks and benefits of exercise during pregnancy and lactation will be briefly discussed. Women who exercise during pregnancy must therefore be especially careful to ensure an adequate diet.

CHAPTER 3 Nutritional Concerns of Child Athletes

EXERCISE A. Sports
Type

HEALTH A. Growth

Medical

NUTRITION

Requirements

RDA /DRI

Recommendations

SUMMARY

Regular physical activity (PA) in childhood is positively associated with improved strength, maintenance of healthy body weight (BW) and composition, and cardiorespiratory fitness.1 The development of habitual PA patterns in childhood can continue into adulthood,2 laying the foundation for a healthier life. Stergioulas, A., Tripolitsioti, A., Messinis, D., Bouloukos, A., and Nounopoulos, C., The effects of endurance training on selected coronary risk factors in children, Acta.

CHAPTER 4 Nutritional Concerns of Adolescent Athletes

NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, AND DIETARY PRACTICES Relatively little research exists describing the nutrition knowledge, attitudes, and dietary prac-
ENERGY INTAKE AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS
Energy Intake
Micronutrient Intake and Status

ENERGY AND MACRONUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS A. Energy Requirements

Macronutrient Requirements

FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE REQUIREMENTS
MICRONUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS A. Iron

Calcium

WEIGHT CONTROL AND DISORDERED EATING A. Dieting and Weight Loss Practices

The Female Athlete Triad
Disordered Eating in Male Athletes — The Special Case of “Making Weight”

SUPPLEMENT USE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

For example, while 95% of the athletes believed that a balanced diet was essential to an athlete's performance, 55%. Similarly, none of the female figure skaters in the Ziegler et al.35 study showed iron deficiency anemia, although more than half of the athletes consumed <2/3 of the RDA for iron. However, it should be noted that serum ferritin was not measured in the Ziegler et al35 study; so some of the athletes may have been iron depleted.

Similarly, Nickerson et al.75 found that 14 of 41 female high school runners (34%) were iron deficient during the competitive season. Because of the high prevalence of iron deficiency, iron status should be assessed in all adolescent athletes before and during the competitive season. The adolescent athlete is perhaps at the greatest risk for developing triad disorders.

Lakin et al.155 found that almost 3% of the 716 high school wrestlers studied met the diagnostic criteria for bulimia nervosa. Consideration of the value of calculated nutrient intakes for assessing micronutrient status in children.

CHAPTER 5 Nutritional Concerns of Elderly Athletes

OVERLYING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ELDERLY A. Physiological Aspects
Physical Aspects

NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE ELDERLY

Macronutrient Needs
Micronutrient Needs
Other Nutritional Needs

NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ELDERLY

Fluids
Foods

A two-component program of aerobic and strength training is necessary to maintain lean body mass25,26 and to increase the metabolism of endogenous fat stores.27 Fat oxidation is generally lower in older adults than in younger adults,27,28 but can be increased after endurance training without significant changes in lipolysis or the availability of free fatty acids during exercise.27 A decrease in muscle strength, as occurs with aging, is one of the main causes of disability.20 A decrease in speed during for example, walking and getting up from a chair are associated with a decrease in strength.30 Even a small increase in muscle strength in the elderly can slow functional decline and ensure a better quality of life.31 The decrease in mobility and physical performance as one ages is directly related to the loss of muscle mass.32-34 This is attributed to the combined loss of both types of muscle fibers, but especially of type II fibers.30,35 Reduced muscle fiber size also occurs with aging. More recent research194 and a review195 show that revising the current RDA for reference protein in the elderly remains controversial.

The recommendation for adequate calcium intake has recently increased from 800 mg/day to 1.2–1.4 g/d.200 The best ways to increase calcium in the diet include drinking more milk and choosing products other low-fat milk. Dietary fiber is important in diets for the elderly,172 many of whom suffer from constipation and other bowel disorders. Increasing the amount of fiber in the diet can alleviate these problems. Fats, oils and sweets should be used sparingly, especially in the elderly, whose energy needs are reduced.

Grimby, G., Muscle performance and structure in the elderly as studyed cross-sectional and longitudinally, J. Burckhardt, P., Are hoftefractures preventable with nutrition measurements and exercise in the elderly?, Osteoporosis Int., 3, S56 , 1996.

P ART II Nutritional Concerns of Athletes in

CHAPTER 6 Nutritional Concerns of Olympic and

ENERGY AND MACRONUTRIENT INTAKES AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Energy
Carbohydrate
Protein

SUPPLEMENTS
DIETARY CONCERNS

Travel
Overtraining

CONCLUSION

Saris et al.6 studied cyclists competing in the Tour de France, one of the most strenuous endurance events. Ten male cyclists voluntarily participated in a study by Garcia-Roves et al.7 The energy intake of the 10 cyclists during three 24-hour periods for which food and fluid intake was determined by weighing and measuring averaged 5617 kcal /d. A study by Frentsos and Baer8 may help illustrate the potential impact of a training program.

As shown in Tables 6.1 and 6.2, the energy intake of elite athletes can be enormous or rather modest, depending on the type and intensity of the training program. Of the studies in Table 6.1, the ski jumpers studied by Rankinen et al.13 had the lowest reported energy intake. The average energy intake of the surfers during the competition was 2263 kcal/d, which was less than the estimated energy requirements.

Rankinen, T., Lyytikainen, S., Vanninen, E., Penttila, I., Rauramaa, R., and Uusitupa, M., Nutritional status of Finnish elite ski jumpers. Vallieres, F., Tremblay, A., and St-Jean, L., A study of energy balance and nutritional status of highly skilled female swimmers.

CHAPTER 7 Nutritional Concerns of Vegetarian Athletes

TYPES OF VEGETARIANS
THE NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF VEGETARIAN DIETS
NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS OF VEGETARIANS
VEGETARIAN ATHLETES
SPECIFIC NUTRITIONAL NEEDS OF VEGETARIANS
Protein
Fats
Fiber
Minerals
Vitamins

NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS AND THE VEGETARIAN ATHLETE The most useful nutritional supplements for vegetarians are those in which they may be
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Some believe it is a better use of the Earth's resources to eat lower forms of the food chain; Depending on the type of vegetarian diet, one of several protein supplements can be used and extra vitamins and minerals can be added. In general, proteins of animal origin contain sufficient amounts of the essential amino acids and that is why they are known as premium proteins.

Adding eggs and/or dairy products to meals or snacks greatly improves the overall protein quality of a vegetarian diet. This type of reaction occurs when one of the protein sources has a significantly higher concentration of the most limiting amino acid in the other protein. The protein component giving the highest value is the one containing the highest concentration of the deficient amino acid.

This meal-related decrease in proteolysis is independent of the amino acid composition or content of the diet. There are also other nutritional supplements, such as creatine and some amino acids, that can be useful for improving performance.

CHAPTER 8 Nutritional Concerns of

GENERAL HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DISABLED
NUTRITIONAL CONCERNS OF ATHLETES WITH CEREBRAL PALSY Two major medical classifications of CP observed among individuals are spastic and athetoid
NUTRITIONAL CONCERNS OF ATHLETES WITH SPINAL CORD INJURY (WHEEL CHAIR ATHLETES)
SPECIAL MEDICAL CONDITIONS
CONCLUSIONS

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is categorized based on the degree of injury to the nerve roots of the spinal cord, which may necessitate wheelchair confinement. Despite many functional and environmental limitations, physically challenged athletes are a highly dedicated group of individuals whose eating habits are not unique. Ferrara, M.S., Buckley, W.E., McCann, B.C., Limbird, T.J., Powell, J.W., and Robol, R., The injury experience of the competitive athlete with a disability: implications for prevention, Med.

DePauw, K.P., and Gavron, S.J., Sports opportunities for athletes with disabilities, Disability and Sport, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, 1995. LaPorte, R.E., Brenes, G., and Dearwater, S., HDL cholesterol in a physical activity spectrum from quadriplegia to marathon running, Lancet. Johnson, R.K., Goran, M.I., Ferrara, M.S. and Poehlman, E.T., Athetosis that increases resting metabolic rate in adults with cerebral palsy, J.

Kofsky, P.R., Shepard, R.J., Davis, G.M., and Jackson, R.W., Fitness Classification Tables for the Lower Extremity Disabled, in Sport and the Disabled Athlete, Sherill, C., Ed. Fike, S., Kanter, M., and Markely, E., Fluid and Electrolyte Requirements of Exercise, in Sports Nutrition, 2nd ed., Bernardot, D., ed., American Dietetic Association, Chicago, IL, 1992, p. 38.

CHAPTER 9 Nutritional Concerns of Athletes

INFORMATION ON EXERCISE FOR PERSONS WITH TYPE I OR INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS (DM)
Benefits
Risks
Metabolic Effects of Exercise in Those With Type I DM
Factors that Influence Fuel Use During Exercise
Carbohydrates During Intense Training and Endurance Events
Precautions and Guidelines for Exercise Some factors to consider are

INFORMATION ON EXERCISE FOR PERSONS WITH TYPE II DM A. Benefit

Metabolic Effects of Exercise on Those with Type II DM
Precautions and Guidelines for Exercise Some factors to consider are

INFORMATION ON EXERCISE FOR PERSONS WITH HYPERTENSION A. Benefits

Type of Physical Activity
Effects of Endurance Training on Blood Pressure
Intensity, Frequency, and Duration of Endurance Training
Interaction of Antihypertensive Pharmacological Therapy and Exercise
Nutrition and Exercise in Individuals with Hypertension

INFORMATION ON EXERCISE FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE

SPECIFIC BENEFITS OF ENDURANCE TRAINING IN INDIVIDUALS WITH CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE
Intensity, Duration, and Frequency of the Physical Activity
Nutrition and Exercise in Individuals with CAD

SUMMARY

Individuals with diabetes may experience a greater increase in blood pressure during exercise than those without diabetes. The last six risks under type I DM will also apply to individuals with type II DM. The overall benefits of exercise for people with essential hypertension are essentially the same as those previously described for individuals with type II diabetes mellitus.

The general benefits of exercise for people with coronary artery disease are essentially the same as those previously described for individuals with type II diabetes. The risk associated with exercise in individuals with CAD will be influenced by the severity of the disease and the number and extent of any comorbid conditions. Individuals with CAD who also have hypertension should follow the strength training guidelines discussed in the previous section on hypertension.

Endurance training may have a number of positive effects that reduce morbidity and mortality in individuals with CAD. Most exercise programs for individuals with CAD or recovering from coronary artery bypass surgery limit the intensity of physical activity to less than 75% of baseline maximal oxygen uptake.

P ART III The Sport

CHAPTER 10 The Training Table

ATHLETES’ NUTRITION KNOWLEDGE
THE OPTIMAL TRAINING TABLE
Practical Applications
Smart Food Choices at Fast-Food Restaurants
International Travel
Avoiding Traveler’s Diarrhea
Suggestions for Athletes with Traveler’s Diarrhea
Eating at all Day Events

SUMMARY
APPLIED “FUELING TACTICS”
A TRUE COMMITMENT TO FUELING
TIMING FOR CHANGE IS EVERYTHING
RATIONALIZING WHEN AND WHERE TO FUEL
DETERMINING HOW MUCH STRUCTURE
HYDRATION AND REST
SUMMARY

Components of a Proper Pre-Event Meal
Adverse Effects of an Improper Pre-Event Meal
Effects of the Pre-Event Meal on Performance

It (nutrition) wasn't the reason we wrestled the way we did," the (University of Tennessee) strength and conditioning coach said, "but it was a contributing factor." And unfortunately, it was completely ignored in this column. He has ignored their kitchen advice this summer, during which he has become an integral part of (the University of Tennessee's) strength and conditioning program. Coach) is committed to research. However, (coach) understands that barbells sell more lighter than dinner bells.Applied sports nutritionist) has provided one-on-one nutritional counseling in weekly 15-minute meetings with each player.

Another time when a team is on the brink of championship performances but can't quite win "the big one" is when change can be embraced with minimal resistance. This has been shown to be true in laboratory rats given a fixed daily protein intake.6 The athletes learn that there is no need to stuff themselves since another meal or snack will be on the way. Regional seasoning alternatives may be substituted with the permission of the applied sports nutritionist.

The registered sports nutritionist must notify athletic department administrators of final team nutrition costs. These include carbohydrate content, type of food (mild or spicy, etc.), dietary fiber content and amount of fluid consumed.