[corresponding author [email protected]]
Japan's Inclusive Development: The Strategy and Policies of The Japanese Government Towards Disability
Education
Wan Nur Ain
1, Rifqi Jalil
2, Sephia Dwi Meilinda Wulandari
3Bosowa University
INTRODUCTION
In December 2006, the UN adopted the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) at the UN headquarters in New York City. The Convention then entered into force in 2008. The CRPD became a joint effort in the implementation of disability- friendly inclusive development. The Convention has been ratified by 183 countries. These countries are then authorized to design their own national work programs (Nursyamsi &
others, 2021).
In establishing its rules and framework, the CRPD is always based on the interests of human rights. This includes Article 28 on improving living standards and adequate social protection. The CRPD explicitly guarantees a decent standard of living for persons with disabilities on the availability of food, clothing, and adequate housing, which will be implemented based on the policies of their respective countries. The hard work of the UN through the CRPD in inclusive development is clear evidence of their efforts to achieve international goals so that all persons with disabilities of all ages can participate in respecting rights and accessibility on an equal basis with others.
A few years after the ratification of the CRPD in 2015, world leaders from 193 countries of the United Nations (UN) also agreed on the 2030 sustainable development agenda for the sake of peaceful and more strategic survival for all people (United Nations,
ABSTRACT
The United Nations (UN) adopted the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in late 2006, with the fundamental aim of upholding the human rights interests of persons with disabilities in sustainable development. As of August 2021, the Convention has been ratified by 183 member states of the United Nations (UN), one of them being Japan in early 2014. The ratification of the Convention by Japan was then followed by several amendments to the Japanese Law, which were also followed by initiating policies in the education sector for people with disabilities, one of which is the Special Needs Education program. The implementation of several policies implemented by the Government has led Japan to be ranked 24th among 134 countries in the world with a high global development inclusiveness index. Therefore, this article aims to explain how the Japanese Government's strategy and policy measures in disability education using the approach or concept of inclusive development. The research in this article uses the library research method by using literature such as documents or data that has been published, including journal articles, reports, laws, and regulations from the Japanese Government, related institutions, and international organizations through their official websites. With this, the author's findings presented in this article, namely the existence of policies on Education for people with disabilities in Japan, which in their realization, use the basic principles of inclusive development.
Keywords: Policy; Japan's inclusive development; Education for the Disabled; school and curriculum system.
2016).The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agenda is a supporting aspect of the CRPD framework in international commitments as a definite step in achieving sustainable targets without leaving the interests of other parties, including groups of people with disabilities.
Following up on the CPRD and SDGs commitments, various countries are actively formulating and implementing development strategies that are based on efforts to fulfill the rights of persons with disabilities. Since signing the CPRD in 2007 and then ratifying it in 2014, Japan has been one of the countries that have been very consistent in realizing this commitment (Furuta & Osugi, 2016). Japan is even one of the countries in East Asia that has great concern for people with disabilities.
The implementation of the CPRD commitment is developed through the education sector. Japan refers to article 24 in the CPRD on Education, which clearly states that persons with disabilities can access inclusive, quality, and free primary and secondary education on an equal basis with others in the communities where they live (United Nations Human Rights, 2006).
In its realization, the CPRD is not only the only legal framework used in every decision-making by the Japanese Government but also based on matters related to legislation driven by the existence of international commitments, namely the SDGs, in creating sustainable development that is evenly realized. In every inclusive development program in Education, it can never be separated from the CRPD and SDGs agenda as an international agreement that always emphasizes not leaving any party or no one left behind, including vulnerable groups in regional, national, and international frameworks (United Nations DSPD-DESA, 2016).
Japan's efforts to transform its education system based on the fulfillment of the rights of persons with disabilities began in 2007 after the country signed the CPRD, which was followed by the reform of some of Japan's education laws. Previously, the Education of people with disabilities with conventional "special education" programs that classified students based on the type and level of their special needs, such as schools for children with deafness, blindness, and autism, which were later reformed into schools for special needs Education with a much different system.
In consideration of the increasing number of students and the need for a learning environment to train them in independence and social sensitivity, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology, or MEXT, under the supervision and policy of the Japanese Government decided to reform the education system. Thus, in the updated Special Needs Education system, there are two forms of the disability school system: regular/general schools with special classes and special schools for children with disabilities (MEXT JAPAN, 2008)
After the enactment of the new education law and the ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the Japanese Government has also boldly taken a step forward in making other policies and strategies to promote disability-inclusive development, not only focusing on Education but also the economic, cultural, social, political and national stability sectors.
This is evidenced by the availability of disability-friendly public facilities, health services, social protection, and labor market provision. In addition, inclusive development through education programs by the Japanese Government also continues to experience increasingly effective updates to the provision of school facilities for people with disabilities and the curriculum system.
One of the fixed indicators on which global disability development depends is the inclusiveness index. The inclusiveness index acts as a holistic measure of inclusive
development that focuses on ethnic or racial, religious, gender, and disability equality in the political sphere, economic income inequality, education system stability, violence within and outside the community, and several other supporting factors (Elsheikh & others, 2021).
The Othering and Belonging Institute, based at the University of California, in March 2021 released a report on the list of countries in the world based on the level of their inclusiveness index. In the report, 134 countries were recorded, 27 of which were included in the list of countries with the highest global inclusiveness index. Shows Japan as the only country in East Asia that managed to rank 24th among the 27 countries with the highest index throughout 2020, and interestingly Japan was able to maintain a value scale of 59.59 for two consecutive years. This is proof of Japan's ability to maintain the stability of its inclusive development globally (Elsheikh & others, 2021).
For all the efforts that have been or are being made by Japan as a country that has a high awareness of respecting the rights of people with disabilities, this article will further explain the strategies and policies of the Japanese Government in providing higher-quality Education for people with disabilities using an inclusive development approach. It is hoped that this article will shed new light on the extent of Japan's success in implementing these strategies and policies.
ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
The United Nations, in its report entitled Toolkit on Disability for Africa, explained that one form of inclusive development is through inclusive Education. Where children with disabilities need to be included in mainstream Education, quality learning at an early age, as well as the accessibility of infrastructure and provision of decent accommodation (United Nations DSPD-DESA, 2016).
The term disability-inclusive development means that all persons with disabilities have the right to access and be involved in all-inclusive development processes. In this case, persons with disabilities have the right to equal access to Education, health services, employment, labor, and social protection (United Nations DSPD-DESA, 2016).
Then the United Nations Human Rights (Office of the High Commission), in a guide entitled Policy Guidelines for Inclusive Sustainable Development Goals "Foundations"
released in 2020, explained that there are at least five core pillars or principles that must be met in developing disability-inclusive public policies in realizing inclusive development (United Nations Human Rights, 2020).
1. Non-discrimination
Non-discrimination means that people with disabilities are not treated differently in any way and receive the same accommodations as non-disabled people.
2. Accessibility
Accessibility means that people with disabilities are provided with treatment and prevention of barriers that may limit the participation of people with disabilities.
3. Support
Support means that persons with disabilities receive assistive technology and other support services to benefit from existing policies and programs and overcome accessibility limitations.
4. Participation
Participation means that persons with disabilities can bring their valuable skills and experiences to bear on the formation of policies and programs.
5. Awareness-raising
Awareness-raising is for everyone to contribute to combating negative stereotypes, increasing knowledge, and respecting the rights and dignity of people with disabilities.
Some research on the inclusive education system in Japan, among others: the work of Yoneda, H. (2019) from the Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba with the title Development of the Japanese Inclusive Education System: From Special Schools to Curriculum Modification for Special-Needs Education in Regular Schools.
This study aims to examine the extent of changes in disability education in regular schools in order to develop an inclusive education system in Japan. It also aims to examine the extent of curriculum modifications made by Japan for students with disabilities in regular schools and special schools. This research was conducted by means of a literature study that included reports, notices, and statistics related to Special Education from the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Science and Technology (MEXT).
The results show that Japan has made various efforts to realize inclusive Education so that all people with disabilities are not left behind. Starting from building instructional structures to promoting the establishment of special classes in regular schools. Then Japan also modifies the curriculum to suit the level of learning difficulties caused by disabilities.
Next, the work of Furuta, H. and Osugi, N. (2016) from the Department of Special Needs Education, Faculty of Education, Kumamoto University, with the research title Developing an Inclusive Education System in Japan: The Case of Yamaga City, Kumamoto.
This study aims to determine and describe the situation of inclusive Education in Yamaga City, Kumamoto Prefecture, after the ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in 2014. It also aims to examine the implementation of the Developing Inclusive Education System (DIES) project in Yamaga City.
The research sample was taken in Yamaga City in the area of Kahoku Secondary School with a focus on utilizing resources in the school, as well as the establishment of a Special Needs Education (SNE) Coordinating Committee to implement the DIES project.
The results show that the DIES project in Yamaga City is implemented through the development of an inclusive education system at the secondary school level. To realize good implementation in inclusive Education, good accommodation is needed. To provide good accommodation for students with disabilities, three stages of Additional Support are required: Whole-class support in regular classrooms, individualized support in regular classrooms, and support in specialized settings. Then, additional case meetings are also implemented in three stages: Briefcase meetings in regular schools, SNE case meetings in schools, SNE meetings in regular schools, and junior high school area: SNE coordinator meetings.
The literature shows that the discussion of Japan's policy on disability-inclusive Education is still limited to the elaboration of technicalities and procedures as well as the system itself.
This paper, therefore, seeks to complement that discussion by looking at it from the perspective of inclusive development strategies by referring to the guidelines provided by the United Nations Human Rights. Specifically, this paper will look at Japan's strategies and policies in realizing inclusive development from the education sector through the lens of the core principles or pillars in developing disability-inclusive policies; non-discrimination, accessibility, support, participation, and awareness raising.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A. Japanese Government Policy on School Facilities and Curriculum
The following are some of the policies established by the Japanese Government in the education system for people with disabilities, which are based on the principles of disability-inclusive development in their design and implementation.
1.1 Provision of School Facilities for Special Needs Education
Special needs education is Japan's strategy for achieving inclusive Education. The provision of adequate special needs education school facilities is one of the Japanese government policies that use the principle of accessibility in its implementation. Realizing the importance of proper schooling for those with physical or mental limitations, the Government initiated to design of school facilities for disabilities with the same advantages as other public schools. With this, the disability education system in Japan itself has undergone several updates, considering that there are several aspects that need to be adjusted to the needs of students with special needs.
Prior to the enactment of the new Special Needs Education system, disability education went through a long process until it finally arrived on the change agenda after the ratification of the CRPD and the revision of the full implementation of special needs Education in Japan's school education law in 2006 and 2007 (MEXT, 2007). Previously, the Japanese Government provided education facilities for the disabled by classifying them into three schools according to the type and level of disability/needs of the students, including a school for the deaf, a school for the blind, and a school for intellectual disabilities, which was later updated into one school that can accept various types of children's disabilities.
The process of amending the school education system law by the Japanese Government in 2007 became an important moment when the system of "Education for Children with Disabilities" was transferred to "Special Needs Education (SNE)," which is implemented to this day (Yoneda, 2019). In the new SNE system, children with mental disabilities, including Learning Disability (LD), Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and High Functioning Autism (HFA), who were previously not considered as disabilities and thus were often excluded from targeted education assistance, leaving them without access to the special education they should have received, are now brought to the attention of the Government in light of the fact that they are also persons with disabilities who have the right to access all public services including special schools (Yoneda, 2019).
The Japanese Government has thus promoted special needs Education by trying to ensure the development and continuity between the two types of schools: special needs schools and regular schools with class divisions of regular classes, special classes, and resource rooms. This three-part class classification for students with disabilities in regular schools aims to allow them to access general learning in regular classes but still have the opportunity to receive instruction according to their needs in special classes and resource rooms.
In consideration of the accessibility principle of inclusive development, which is further regulated in the articles of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, there is a need to improve the quality of schools and learning spaces for children with disabilities. Therefore, regular schools are the main means by which children with and without disabilities can mix well to instill in them a sense of social participation and independence while studying (MEXT, 2007). As of 2017, there were 142,000 students enrolled in regular classes in regular special needs education schools (UNESCO, 2021).
According to a report from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology-Japan (MEXT), there has been a significant increase in the number of children
with disabilities each year, making the need for more services one of the main reasons for the shift in the disability education system. With the availability of two types of schools in the new system, the Japanese Government provides an opportunity for students, with the consent and support of their parents, to choose to be placed in special schools or regular schools. Until now, regular schools are still the first choice of most parents as a place to study for their children, so local governments are given leeway to make policies in the placement of children with disabilities so that the number of students is not concentrated in a few schools. In developing programs within the special needs education framework, each school selection should comprehensively consider the opinions of children with disabilities and their parents/guardians, the opinions of experts in Education, psychology, and medicine, as well as the conditions and situation of the school and surrounding community.
Figure 1. Number Number of National, Public, and Private Special Needs Education Schools in Japan from 2013 to 2022
(Statista Research Department, 2023)
In 2023, Statista Research Department presented a data report on the number of national, public, and private schools in Japan from 2013 to 2022. As of May 2022, approximately 1.2 thousand special needs education schools were operating in Japan, most of which were facilities established by Japanese local governments. The number of public schools has increased every year, in contrast to the national schools, which remained at the same level of 45 schools from 2013 to 2022, and the private schools, which remained in the range of 13 to 15 schools (Statista Research Department, 2023).
On April 22, 2011, a partial revision of the Constitution for persons with disabilities was also submitted to the National Diet of Japan, which was then partially amended before being passed unanimously on June 16, 2011 (CAO JAPAN, 2011). The partial constitutional revision emphasized improvements and refinements in the content and methods of Education while giving consideration to ensuring that students receive adequate school education instruction to the maximum extent possible (CAO JAPAN, 2011).
1.2 Special Needs Education Schools curriculum framework
The Japanese Government has consistently not only modified the school facilities system for special needs education schools. Updating the curriculum framework is also very important to encourage more effective student learning. Creating a more systematic
curriculum that adapts to the current era will allow students to explore their potential more freely. Curricula for students with special needs are also designed as well as possible based on the basic principles of inclusive development so that students can receive teaching that is tailored to their needs. The Japanese Government itself provides guidance to special needs schools in presenting a more open curriculum so that it can be known what students need.
Japan's National Curriculum Standards provide general guidelines for the curriculum standards needed to realize these ideas. One of the purposes of the National Curriculum Standards is to ensure that the national standards for Education in schools for the disabled are appropriate. The Japanese Government seeks to further improve educational activities by course of study in accordance with the provisions of the national curriculum standards, by trying to understand the current situation and problems of students, and by working with families and communities to make efforts to best understand the characteristics and abilities of students. One such effort is to require academic research and teaching practices that have been accumulated over many years for each teaching staff in each special needs school (Matsuno, 2017).
The Japanese Government implements the principle of non-discrimination in the implementation of the special needs education curriculum in the special needs education system. In this case, there are two types of schools, namely regular and special, which are guided by the Japanese education system, including the determination of study programs for each school (Yoneda, 2019).
The principle of non-discrimination is evident in the curriculum system in regular schools, which includes students with disabilities and non-disabled students in the same class so that in the regular class, they get the same knowledge without any difference in their treatment. Students with disabilities who have been legally enrolled in regular schools must basically follow the regular curriculum in the school, but because of the limitations for them to be able to learn like other non-disabled students, a special curriculum is needed in regular schools for students with disabilities, including the availability of teaching through support services in resource rooms where the idea of teaching in resource rooms in regular schools means that children with special needs will receive general subjects in regular classes, as well as receive special teaching that suits their physical and mental conditions in special classes that have been made available. Children with visual, hearing, speech, emotional, physical health and intellectual and developmental disabilities should, in principle, also participate in learning activities in the resource room.
One thing that differentiates the curriculum for disabled and non-disabled children in regular schools is the self-reliance teaching system (jiritsu-katsudo) and student leadership activities (tokkatsu) for disabled children in special classes in regular schools. In the jiritsu- katsudo program, students are taught how to practice their skills, with the development of attitudes and morals, thoughts and bodies going hand in hand, as well as educating them to solve small problems in learning and social life (Matsuno, 2017).
Just like non-disabled students, all students with special needs receive "academic"
knowledge such as math, Japanese language, science, and social studies, as well as "non- academic" knowledge, including music and art, comprehensively at all levels of schooling, from elementary school to senior high school. The division of subjects is also focused on the regulations of the Education Law and the Japanese curriculum system, while foreign language subjects are organized as necessary in consideration of students' abilities and circumstances at school.
B. Career Paths of Special Needs Education Graduates
The participation of people with disabilities is one of the principles applied by the Japanese Government in its efforts to achieve inclusive development. One of the ultimate goals of implementing inclusive development is to create a qualified workforce for the country and society. In addition to the principle of participation, the Japanese Government also shows its support in terms of providing labor space for people with disabilities to participate in inclusive development. This is also contained in the contents of the CRPD as one of Japan's guidelines in policy-making, in article 27 on employment, recognizing the right of persons with disabilities to work on an equal basis with others, with the ability of the state to build a workforce from the labor market that is freely chosen or accepted, and a work environment that is more accessible and accessible to some people, including persons with disabilities in the world of work (United Nations DSPD-DESA, 2016).
Basically, people with disabilities and people without disabilities in Japan have equal Education by using the facilities provided by the Government, with various efforts that have been mobilized to achieve educational equality for all citizens. Therefore, the involvement and participation of the disabled community are key to the effectiveness of local government policies, including their implementation and evaluation. It is important to know and understand the abilities of students with disabilities during their school years so that teaching staff can help to hone the potential of students with disabilities so that they can prepare early for their future careers. The existence of the principle of inclusive development, related to the participation of people with disabilities in development and state support for them, means that the Government does not necessarily impose its will in pursuing certain fields because people with disabilities have the freedom to choose their own path in life under the protection of laws and human rights that have been agreed upon globally. The Government, in this case, is tasked with supporting and providing as much space and services as possible for them to gain access to public services, Education and facilitating them to reach their dream careers. Just as the special needs education system allows students to choose between regular and special schools, graduates of special needs education schools also have the right to choose whether to continue their careers in higher education or join certain institutions as workers.
The application of the principle of disability participation is noted in the following table, which relates to the number of graduates of Special Needs Education schools at the junior high school and senior high school levels in Japan as of March 2018.
Table 1. Career paths of secondary school graduates with special needs.
Division Graduates Continuing Education
Enrollment in education and training institutions
Employed Person
People entering/visiting
social welfare facilities
Others
Junior High School
total 10.491 10.322
(98,4%) 21 (0,2%) 4 (0,4%) 62 (0,6%) 82 (0,8%) Visual
impairment 177 174
(98,3%) - - 1 (0,6%) 2
(1,1%) Hearing
loss 402 400
(99,5%) 14 (0,18%) 3 (0,04%) 29 (0,4%) 55 (0,7%) Intellectual
disability 7.881 7.780
(98,7%) 14 (0,18%) 3 (0,04%) 29 (0,4%) 55 (0,7%) Physical
disability 1.698 1.657
(97,6%) 2 (0,1%) - 2 (1,4%) 15
(0,9%)
Weak 333 311
(93,4%) 5 (1,5%) 1 (0,3%) 8 (2,4%) 8
(2,4%) Junior high school
special support class 22.132 20.927
(94,6%) 429 (1,9%) 153
(0,7%) 623 (2,8%) Note. Adapted from MEXT (MEXT-JAPAN, 2018 (In Japanese))
As of 2018, SNE graduates at the secondary school level, classified by type of disability, totaled 10,491 students. 98.4% of them chose to continue their higher education to senior high school, and the rest chose not to continue to senior high school. The 82 people in the
"other" column are currently unknown and may include those who chose to enroll in a foreign school, those who chose an undecided course/major, or those who are unknown/deceased (MEXT-JAPAN, 2018).
Table 2. Career paths of high school graduates with special needs.
Division Graduates Continuing Education
Enrollment in education and training institutions
Employed Person
People entering/visiting
social welfare facilities
Others
Total 21.657 427 (2,0%) 342 (1,6%) 6.760
(31,2%) 13.241 (61,1&) 887 (4,1%) Visual
impairment 290 90 (31,0%) 10 (3,4%) 47 (16,2%) 125 (43,1%) 18(6,2%) Hearing loss 492 193 (39,2%) 20 (4,1%) 192
(39,0%) 68 (13,8%) 19 (3,9%) Intellectual
disability 18.668 76 (0,4%) 241 (1,3%) 6.338
(34,0%) 11.267 (60,4%) 746 (4,0%) Physical
disability 1.841 43 (2,3%) 47 (2,6%) 111 (6,0%) 1.575 (85,6) 65 (3,5%) Weak 366 25 (6,8%) 24 (6,6%) 72 (19,7%) 206 (56,3%) 39 (10,7%)
Note. Adapted from MEXT (MEXT-JAPAN, 2018 (In Japanese))
The table above shows the number of graduates of special needs education schools at the final secondary school level, with a total of 21,657 graduates, the highest number being 13,241 who decided to join a disability welfare support facility or medical institution. A total of 6,760 graduates were also observed to go on to employment, in contrast to only 427 who went on to Higher Education (MEXT-JAPAN, 2018).
CONCLUSION
Some of the Japanese Government's policy implementation is, in fact, aligned with the four principles of inclusive development. However, the Awareness Raising principle is the only principle that is not yet fully implemented into government policy. Although the current Japanese Government is considered to have been able to provide excellent living conditions for people with disabilities, as well as develop a policy framework that is in accordance with internationally established standards. However, it will not be enough if only the Government takes action. There is a need to raise Awareness in the wider community, especially those who are non-disabled. In some aspects, in fact, other people often show indifference towards people with disabilities.
The implementation of this fourth concept of inclusive development still needs to be realized by the general public because sometimes exclusion is still a problem that is difficult to be removed by various countries, including Japan. Based on data presented by
the United Nations General Assembly, people with disabilities around the world in both developed and developing countries, which now number more than one billion, have experienced poverty and exclusion in their surrounding communities (United Nations DSPD-DESA, 2016). Ostracization from their surroundings sometimes creates barriers for them to take advantage of opportunities to access public services such as health care, work skills development, and Education, making it less likely for them to participate in development.
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