Code-Switching and the Misings
2.1.1 Code-switching and Bilingualism
CHAPTER II
(who know a second language but have not used it for some time) and those who have considerable skill in a second language. In such code-switching, different forms take place, such as, phrases from both the languages succeeding each other, alteration of sentences, and switching for a longer narrative and return to the matrix language.
John Gumperz defines code-switching as “The juxtaposition within the same speech, exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems” (Gumperz 1982, 59). He describes code-switching as discourse exchanges which form a single unitary interactional whole, “Speakers communicate fluently, maintaining an even flow of talk. No hesitation pauses, changes in sentence rhythm, pitch level or intonation contour mark the shift in code. There is nothing in the exchange as a whole to indicate that speakers don't understand each other. Apart from the alternation itself, the passages have all the earmarks of ordinary conversation in a single language” (Ibid. 60).
According to Shana Poplack, “Code-switching refers to the mixing by bilinguals (or multilinguals) of two or more languages in discourse, often with no change of interlocutor or topic. Such mixing may take place at any level of linguistic structure, but its occurrence within the confines of a single sentence, constituent or even word, has attracted most linguistic attention” (Poplack 1980, 1). She discusses two grammatical constraints on code-switching: (a) a free-morpheme constraint which states that a switch cannot occur between a lexical form and a bound morpheme unless the former has been phonologically integrated into the language of the latter, and (b) the equivalence constraint rule which states that the word order immediately before and immediately after a switching point should exist in the two languages to make it possible for a switch to take place. The two languages involved can then be interchanged freely (Poplack 1980, 581-618).
Carol Myers-Scotton observes that, “In many of the world’s bilingual communities, fluent bilinguals sometimes engage in code-switching by producing discourses which, in the same conversational turn or in consecutive turns, include morphemes
from two or more of the varieties in their linguistic repertoire” (Myers-Scotton 1997, 217). She defines code-switching as “the use of two language varieties in the same conversation, not counting established borrowed words or phrases from one variety into the other. These two varieties can occur in a number of structural configurations, but there are two general types, inter-sentential CS, which is most often studied for its social features, and intra-sentential CS, which is more studied for its grammatical structure.” (Myers-Scotton 2007).
Peter Auer refers to code-switching as the “alternating use of two or more languages within one conversation” (Auer 1998, 3). His Bilingual Conversation published in 1984 gives a new dimension to the definition of code-switching situation. He states that code-switching situation is not a predetermined set of norms functioning solely as a constraint on linguistic performance, but it is an interactively achieved phenomenon. In bilingual conversation, “whatever language a participant chooses for the organization of his/her turn, or for an utterance which is part of the turn, the choice exerts an influence on subsequent language choices by the same or other speakers” (Auer 1984, 5).
Cook (1991) gives a perspective of the degree of use of code-switching by bilinguals in normal conversations by outlining that code-switching consists of 84% single word switches, 10% phrase switches and 6% clause and sentence switching on an average. As Gysels (1992) states, code-switching implies some degree of competence in the languages being used even if bilingual fluency is not stable. “It may be used to achieve two things: (a) fill a linguistic/conceptual gap, or (b) for other multiple communicative purposes” (Gysels 1992, 41, 56).
It is evident therefore, that change or shift of speech variety during conversation has a number of socio-psychological aspects associated with it apart from its surface value. In a multi-speech community, every well-formed member of the society has at his/her disposal a repertoire of linguistic choices from which he/she selects for use the appropriate stock depending upon the situation, topic of discourse or networks of
socio-cultural relations. A modern society has several speech networks. “Exponents of sociolinguistics maintain that the ability to use one’s language correctly in a variety of socially determined situations is as much and as central a part of linguistic
‘competence’ as the ability to produce grammatically well-formed sentences. What we do actually produce is a rule-governed realization of a complex network of situationally and culturally determined choices” (Krishnaswami et.al. 1992, 42-43).
These choices are determined by various factors, as shifts in situation require shifts in language varieties. This activity involves the social and psychological behaviour, mood and relative social positions of the participants (addresser and addressee); the distinguishing features of the socio-cultural setting; and the topic of discourse.
The categories of shifts are interrelated to each other. A shift in situation may require a shift in language variety. A shift in language variety may signal a shift in the relationship between co-members of a social network, or a shift in the topic and purpose of their interaction, or shift in the privacy or locale of their interaction. This may be represented diagrammatically as :
(Source : Krishnaswami, et.al. 1992, 43)
2.1.2 There are generally two types of code-switching, i.e., inter-sentential switching and intra-sentential switching. Inter-sentential code-switching is a change of language or variety between independent sentences but in the same conversation.
The extent of a switch in such a switching can be one sentence or many more in an extended discourse. The inter-sentential code-switching is more often studied for the
A shift in situation A shift in language variety
A shift in the relationship between co-members of a social network
social features and motivations associated with the switching. The following examples will make the idea clearer :
Example 1
Setting : On a busy city highway, a flying officer of the Indian Air Force is stopped at a police check post on the Western Express Highway in Mumbai. The road is scheduled to be taken by a VVIP motorcade shortly. The policeman on duty stops the car driven by the officer (in civvies) with his friend in the other front seat, and interrogates him. (English portion of the speech is in italics and the English translation of the Hindi speech is in brackets) :
Policeman : Aap kahan se ayen hein, yeh koun hein? (Where are you coming from, who is this man?)
(The Pilot Officer shows his identity card) Policeman : You are a Pilot. Thik hei, jao. (Okay, go).
(Observed by the author on 23 October 2003 in Mumbai)
Example 2
Setting : A study conducted on bilingual teaching and learning amongst the English–
Spanish bilinguals in the United States of America reports the following code- switching in a class-room situation. The class consisting of the teacher, parents and children discuss their families in a semi-formal situation as they sit on the rug in a semi-cricle. (English in italics and English translation of Spanish in brackets) :
Teacher : How about you, Teresa? ¿Quién vive contigo en tu familia en tu casa?
(Who lives with you in your home)?
Pupil : My mother, my father, my brother.
Parent : No tienes hermano, no tienes hermano tú
(You don’t have a brother, you don’t have a brother).
Teacher : Quieres un hermano pero no hay (You want a brother but
there isn’t one). Would you like to have a brother? What about a sister?...
(Source : Quintero 2006, 80.)
Example 3
Setting : Movies serve as the picture gallery of a society and its people of a particular age. They present a vivid audio-visual depiction of the environs and lifestyle of the people of the age. Among the things reflected in films, the speech behaviour of the people of the age is representative of many an important aspect of basic human qualities. Therefore, a movie is the mouth piece of the socio-cultural practices and beliefs of the age that it represents. In such a depiction of the contemporary verbal interaction, the following Hindi–English code-switching occurs in a Hindi film song:
Hero : Dil mera churaya kyon, zab ye dil todna hi tha Hum se dil lagaya kyon, hum se mooh modnahi tha Why did you break my heart
Why did you fall in love
Why did you go away, away, away Dil mera churaya kyon ….
English
Translation: Why did you steal my heart, if you had to break it
Why did you put your heart to mine, if it had to turn back Why did you break my heart,
Why did you fall in love,
Why did you go away, away, away Why did you steal my heart ….
(Source : Hindi film “Akele Hum Akele Tum”)
In the above examples, the speaker/singer moves out of L1, makes specific expressions in L2 and moves back to L1 for other expressions, mostly to conclude the speech. These language alternations take place in independent sentences, that is, inter-sententially.
2.1.3 An intra-sentential code-switching is a change of language within the boundaries of a sentence. It includes bilingual constituents within a clause which is
called an intra-clause switching. But such a switch is regarded to be a specific sub- type of intra-sentential code-switching itself.
Example 1
Setting : The office chamber of the head of an institution. The boss tells one of his subordinate officers that it is his (the officer’s) duty to own the responsibility of a mistake found to have occurred in the section of which he is the head.
Boss : Bhool tu apunar section-ot hoise and you are the head of the section.
Train accident hole, Lalu Prasad-e dayittya grohon kori resign dibo lage buli koi. Hei buli teun nije train khon solai accident ghotaisile neki ?
English Translation:
The mistake has occurred in your section and you are the head of it.
When a train accident occurs, Lalu Prasad (the Railway Minister of India) is held responsible and has to resign (people demand his resignation). Does it mean that he was driving the train himself and caused the accident ?
(Observed by the author on June 12, 2007 at Tezpur University)
Example 2
Setting : A roadside city bus stop in the morning. The number of city buses plying on the roads is very few as the private bus owners’ association is observing a chakka bandh (closure of wheels). A number of college-going boys and girls are stranded at the bus stop unable to board the few overcrowded government-operated buses. One of the girls calls up her brother who is a student of another city college and who normally goes to college on his motor-bike. She asks her brother to drop her at college and the following Assamese-English code-switching takes place in their conversation. (English in italics and English translation of the Assamese speech in brackets) :
Sister : Tumi muk college-ot just drop kari ahilei hobo, while coming back moi manage kori lom (It’l be alright if you just drop me in college, while coming back, I’ll manage).
Brother : Thik ase, tumi rastat friend-or gharot humai late koribo nuwariba, kintu. Jodi kora, I’ll fly off. (Alright, but you won’t drop in on your friend on the way and be late. If you do so, I’ll leave you there and go off).
(Observed by the author at Ganeshguri, Guwahati on February 9, 2003)
Both inter-sentential and intra-sentential types of code-switching may occur in the same discourse although they may vary in terms of the degree of social meaning that the change of code denotes. From structural point of view, the intra-sentential or intra-clausal switching facilitates a clearer analysis of the constituent units of the concerned sentence or the clause. This is because, the participating languages find themselves closer to each other within a sentence or a clause and thereby their functional unity is more cooperative to each other. Further, within a sentence, the control of the complementing clause is ensured over the functions of the other units of the sentence, may be in a different language. In an inter-sentential switching, on the other hand, the sentences are the units studied and they may not consist of equal structures as the system of structural construct may vary when language changes.
However, since the present study directs its attention to the sociolinguistic side of code-switching, it examines the social meanings and motivations that are associated with the change of language in a single conversation taking into account both inter- sentential and intra-sentential switches.
2.1.4 In bilingual or multilingual societies, code-switching is used as a