6.2. Integration
6.2.7. Identify potential leaders
The CO should identify candidates in the community who could become leaders in the co-management programme and help in their training and
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Pairwise ranking generally involves the following steps (adapted from Margoluis and Salafsky, 1998):
● Begin by identifying all of the goals (and/or associated objectives) to be prioritized.
● Then record each of these items on a separate index card with a pen.
● With the help of those involved in the ranking exercise, list out each possible pairing between any two of the goals/objectives in your set.
● Next, working down the list of possible pairings, place the first pairing (index cards) of goals or objectives in front of each respondent and ask her/him to choose the more important goal/objective between the two. Record the choice in a table. Ask the respondent to explain why s/he made the choice and record the response in a second table. Alternatively, a focus group can act as a single respondent if it is able to come to consensus on choices.
● After this, present and choose between the next pair of choices, recording the response and reasoning. Continue through the list until all possible combinations of pairings have been chosen with the respondent and the table of responses has been completed for the individual.
● Without the respondent looking on, quickly tabulate and score the overall preferences by counting (sum) the number of times each item was chosen over any other. Record these scores in the table and list out the most preferred (highest score) to least preferred (lowest score) goals/objectives based on the total score.
● Crosscheck the results by asking the respondent what s/he thinks is the most important preference out of all of the potential goal/objective choices.
● Repeat the exercise for the necessary number of respondents.
● Finally, tabulate total preference scores across all respondents to determine the group’s overall preferences. List these overall preferences from highest to lowest and begin to discuss how to divide the ranked items into higher and lower priorities.
Box 6.12. Problem Trees and Solution Trees.
Problem trees are diagrammatic presentations of a problem, its cause and effects. These are done after a community has identified and prioritized its problems. The focus is on one problem, its cause and effect, at a time. The problem tree can serve as the focus for developing a plan of action to resolve the problem or need.
● Draw a large tree on a board with the problem on the trunk.
● Let the participants brainstorm over the causes of the problem by asking the question
‘why?’ Draw a root for each cause, and write the cause on the root.
● Repeat the question ‘why?’ for each cause to identify secondary causes. Write these lower down the roots below the primary causes.
● Ask the participants to identify effects or impacts of the problem by asking ‘what happened?’ Draw a branch for each effect and write the effect on the branch.
● For each effect, repeat the question ‘what happened?’ to reveal secondary effects.
Place them higher up the branch.
● Continue until the participants can no longer identify any effects of the problem.
● Repeat for other problems.
● Participants can write all the causes and effects they identify on separate cards and pin them on the tree. Participants can then easily move cards around as they see links among the causes and effects.
● In a similar fashion, a solution tree can be developed by the group to identify strategies toward overcoming the problem and achieving a better outcome.
Source: IIRR (1998).
Box 6.13. Brainstorming.
Brainstorming is a group activity where selected members of the community take turns in sharing their ideas relating to a certain topic or question. Brainstorming encourages participants to think critically and creatively rather than to simply generate a list of options, answers or interests.
● Set the objective of the activity (e.g. problems and needs identification).
● Based on the objective, determine the individuals and groups that should be involved in the activity.
● Invite the participants and set a time and place.
● Explain and discuss the objectives and mechanics of the session so that everyone understands the process.
● Introduce the topic.
● Ask each participant to give or share their ideas relating to the topic.
● Write down all ideas on a board or paper.
● With the participants, sort, classify and synthesize ideas written on the board.
● Discuss and analyse the results.
● In problem identification, ask the participants: Who is affected? How many people are affected? How? How does the problem affect the community? How do community members feel individually and collectively? Which problem is the most urgent? Which problem is the most manageable to try to solve, considering group resources and limitations?
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Box 6.14. Guidelines for Facilitating Focus Group Discussions.
Focus group discussions are small discussions with four to eight selected members of the community who are chosen for their knowledge or involvement in a specific issue.
The approach involves:
● Establishing the objectives of the discussion;
● Selecting participants based on knowledge and involvement in the issue;
● Planning the timeframe for the discussion;
● Designing focus group guidelines and following guidelines for leading group discussions;
● Questions should be phrased to discover the community attitudes and perceptions about the issue.
The following are some standard operating procedures for facilitating focus group discussions:
● Always begin by introducing the facilitator and participants;
● Start each session with a cultural ritual or prayer if appropriate for the group;
● Make sure the language used is understood by participants or use a translator;
● Start the session by explaining the objectives, describing the agenda or activities and identifying the desired outcome;
● Explain the process the group will go through, the roles of the participants and the expected timeframe;
● Have someone besides the facilitator document the discussion and outputs in meeting minutes and give a copy to the group;
● Always include the names of participants and date on any output;
● Be resourceful and creative and use interesting audio-visual aids;
● Be sensitive to participants’ needs; take breaks when needed; allow the agenda to change if other important issues are raised;
● Choose an appropriate time and place for the community to participate;
● Do not rush the participants; work at their speed;
● Encourage participation by all, control participants who dominate the group;
● Listen carefully to participants and do not interrupt;
● Settle disagreements through dialogue and consensus-building, exhaust all arguments until a resolution is reached;
● Be gender- and culture-sensitive and create an environment of respect.
Source: IIRR (1998).
● The problems or ideas can be classified, segregated or synthesized. They can also serve as the starting point of a new brainstorming session.
● An alternative when participants are hesitant to speak out is to use idea cards. Cards are distributed to each participant and they are asked to write their ideas on the card.
The cards are collected and put up on a board and discussed. The cards can be moved around and grouped on the board as needed.
Source: IIRR (1998).
preparation. Leaders may already have stepped forward in the ‘beginnings’
stage, and others may come forward later. The CO may want to identify other candidates to develop diversity in leadership and to serve specific activities.
Fishers tend to be independent people but co-management requires leaders to lead the process and the organizations which are involved in co-management.
Leaders are needed to motivate, inspire, manage and energize the organization and process (Box 6.15). Leaders may have some natural ability to lead, but leadership can also be learned through experience (Box 6.16).
A good leader:
● Is willing to share power with the group;
● Listens;
● Communicates;
● Collaborates;
Box 6.15. Long-term ‘Champions’.
In cases of co-management in South Africa, an important role was found to be played by one or two dedicated persons intimately involved with a project. A project ‘champion’, whether in the community, in the responsible management agency, or in an external NGO or academic institution, was key to motivating partners, encouraging commitment and providing continuity and support to the partners during the ups and downs experienced in the planning and implementation of the co-management arrangements. These
‘champions’ or mentors frequently facilitate communication and interaction between communities and relevant government departments and other stakeholders and broker the co-management arrangements. They also play an important role in keeping local users up to date on relevant legislative, administrative and political changes and initiatives.
Source: Sowman et al. (2003, pp. 317–318).
Box 6.16. How to Spot Potential Local Leaders.
● Conduct a community study and develop a community profile;
● Immerse yourself among the people;
● Observe people’s activities and be willing to learn from them;
● Observe individual people’s activities and their relationship to people;
● Build rapport with initial contacts;
● Ask trusted persons to vouch for contact persons;
● Take advantage of ‘message bearers’ and ‘go-betweens’ when communicating with people.
Source: Almerigi (2000).
● Expresses the values of the organization;
● Pulls together strengths and talents of the group;
● Has a caring and positive attitude towards people;
● Values consensus;
● Is open-minded, flexible and willing to compromise;
● Leads by example; and
● Considers the group over self.
A leader is a steward, or caretaker of an organization, one who has been entrusted to work for the benefit of all (Almerigi, 2000).