7.4. Community Profile
7.4.5. Resource and ecological assessment
Resource and ecological assessments (REAs) are detailed studies which may include biological and physicochemical parameters. The information obtained can be used to determine the status of the ecosystem. The reports or profiles generated are technical and quantitative in nature. REAs are usually conducted by highly skilled technical persons mostly coming from academe.
Methodologies are generally based on English et al. (1994).
REAs can also be conducted with community participation with very minimal technical input. When outside experts conduct the REA they can benefit from participation by local community members and can provide them with training in methods which can be used for monitoring studies. Time should be taken to explain the characteristics, terminologies, uses and analysis of the methods to the local people. Usually resource maps, transects and trend diagrams are generated as a result of consensus among community participants (Walters et al., 1998) (Box 7.13). This approach increases community participation and can be conducted at a minimal cost. Maps and data produced in a participatory way can be validated by more scientific assessments conducted by experts. In addition, time should be taken to listen to the local people discuss the coastal area and their use of the resources (Boxes 7.14 and 7.15).
An example of community participation in a REA is a commercial fish landing survey. This is a tool to assess commercially important fishery resources at the local level. Selecting appropriate fish landing sites and designing the questionnaire or survey form is the first step and will depend on the purpose of the survey and the type of information needed. Surveyors can
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Box 7.13. Transects.
Transects are both a way of representing information and a technique for familiarizing with the different parts of the community and ecological zones in the area. Among the advantages of the transect is the simple portrayal of the resources present and the associated economic, social and environmental issues in spatial terms. Transects can be made by community members walking a transect from the sea to upland areas.
The transect is conducted by:
● Clearly identifying the information needs and preparing a workplan;
● Choosing the area direction and length of the transect;
● Identifying a transect or reference line;
● Assembling equipment;
● Choosing the time;
● Taking notes of observations made to the left and right sides every 50 metres. Explore the leftward and rightward areas from the reference line but always return to the line and resume the original path;
● Record significant ecological and resource use changes;
● At the end of the transect, return to the village to consolidate and cross-check the information;
● Use the information to draw a coastal profile.
Source: IIRR (1998).
Box 7.14. From the Fisher’s Memory: Reconstructing the History of Catch Per Unit Effort and Finding Historical Levels of Biomass in Danao Bay, Philippines.
In 1997 and 1998, several gear users were invited to workshops. The participants were grouped according to the year they started to use the gear (usually by decade). They were then asked to recall when they started to use the specific technology and to answer the following questions:
1. What was your normal or average catch in the year you started to use the gear?
2. At that time, how many other fishers were using the same gear in Danao Bay?
3. What were the other gears used then in the Bay (both legal and illegal)?
Each group reported their findings, starting with the first (often the older) gear users.
The results showed the steady decline in catch per unit effort, the increase in number of gear users and sometimes an increase in effort per gear user. Most of the time, a rather gloomy picture emerged, especially if the declining line was extended into the future. This was an essential part of problem analysis.
Source: Heinen (2003, p. 51).
go to the landing sites and record types, number and size of fish being landed, as well as number of boats, fishers and types of gear being used. Additionally, using interviews, information on changes in fish catch over time can be gathered by asking fishers what they are catching now, what they caught 5 years ago and 10 years ago. The community participants and the experts analyse the data together.
The REA content can include information on the following parameters:
● Physical setting (geophysical overview including: land; soil; slope; sea floor;
coastal habitat classifications; overview of coastal forests, rivers and watershed);
● Ambient environment (salinity, turbidity, light penetration);
● Climate (seasons, rainfall, winds, temperature, cloud cover);
● Oceanography (bathymetry, current/circulation patterns, tidal flow, waves, water quality, eddies, runoff patterns, substrate);
● Important habitats (coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, wetlands, beaches, soft-bottom, estuaries, lagoons and bays);
● Fish, crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms, elasmobranchs, porifera, aquatic plants, marine mammals, seabirds and other aquatic life;
● Resource use (terrestrial and marine uses);
● Technical attributes of the fishery (type (artisanal, small-scale, commercial, industrial), gear/fishing technology, species harvested, level of exploitation);
● History of resource use (number of resource users, gear, catch, habitat).
Mapping is one of the most important REA activities. Mapping can be more accurately accomplished or verified with global positioning system technology (Walters et al., 1998). Several types of maps can be produced:
Box 7.15. Fishers’ Knowledge of a Newfoundland, Canada, Fishery.
Personal interviews were conducted with fishers in the Bonavista and Trinity Bay, Newfoundland area inshore small-vessel (<35 ft) and nearshore larger-vessel (>35 ft) fisheries. Three kinds of interviews were conducted: one to define terms, one that allows geographically limited information collected by individuals during their careers to be assembled to identify recurrent patterns of change, and one that allows verification, refinement and updating of information on particular fisheries.
Personal interviews were conducted with the fishers and follow-up telephone interviews were conducted several months later. Effectively assessing fishers’ knowledge requires shared understanding of local terms for fish and fishing grounds and for fishing gear; thus, the study began with ten taxonomy/toponomy interviews. Interviews were conducted with a sample of fishers. Follow-up telephone interviews with a sub-sample of the fishers were used to supplement data on the lumpfish roe fishery collected in the first set of interviews. Results from the research were presented at local feedback meetings attended by some of the study participants and some who did not participate in the study.
Source: Neis et al. (1999).
● A sketch map is a freehand drawing that can reveal much about both coastal features and the people who prepare them. These maps start on a blank piece of paper and stakeholders identify major features and distinct features.
● A thematic map displays selected information relating to a specific theme, such as land use, coastal habitats, slope, elevation and soil. These may be qualitative (e.g. land use) or quantitative (e.g. population density). The requisite thematic maps are: land use; coastal habitats; resources; uses, livelihood and opportunities; problems and issues; and transect/cross-section.
● A base map shows selected features such as coastline, roads and villages and serves to orient the stakeholder and assist in accurately identifying features.
● A land use map refers to actual land cover or any form of man’s use of land.
Land use should also be viewed from an historical perspective.
● A spot map describes the area in terms of important features such as roads, rivers and cultural landmarks.
● A coastal habitat map shows the location of important habitats.
● A resource map is a summary of the spatial distribution and condition of resources in the area, and includes resources that provide food and other materials of value to the community. Use, livelihood and opportunities include sites (e.g. fishing gear areas, gleaning sites, mining areas, mangrove cutting) where activities are accomplished or where opportunities or functions provide potential benefits to communities. Problems, issues and conflicts are mapped for later use in management.
A transect is a general reference line cutting across a representative portion of the study area. In effect, the transect line is the side view or cross-section of the site.
Before undertaking a REA, it is important to recognize that there is considerable natural variation within marine ecosystems, both spatially and temporally. Knowledge of the biology of the animals and plants being surveyed will help the researcher understand the differences observed in an ecosystem at different sampling scales. In order to accurately describe the communities in an ecosystem, survey programmes should be designed to minimize differences caused by the sampling itself. It is necessary to conduct regular monitoring to detect changes and suggest causes of change in a resource over time (English et al., 1994). In undertaking the REA it is important that there is a common understanding of local names and terms among the scientists and local people. This is where folk taxonomy, undertaken as part of the SEA, becomes important. It may be useful to refer to photographs, pictures and actual samples or specimens to find out what local names correspond to scientific names. Fishers can be asked to identify habitats, resources, uses, issues and other features on maps.
A variety of detailed technical surveys are conducted in a REA. A few examples of these technical surveys include:
● Manta tows:manta tows involve visual assessment of large areas of underwater habitats by towing an observer behind a small boat. This technique is useful in assessing large-scale changes in resource conditions, determining the effects of
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disturbances on the underwater community, or in selecting sites that are representative of quality habitat for marine reserve status.
● Line intercept transects: line intercept transects are used to assess and describe the benthic community in coral reef habitats. Divers swim along transect lines placed along the bottom and record the percentage cover of life forms (rather than species) of major groups of corals, sponges, algae and other organisms. This is a reliable and efficient method of obtaining per cent cover data and spatial patterns in abundance of important groups of organisms.
● Transect line plot:the transect line plot is used in mangroves to determine the relative frequency, density and species diversity of mangroves. For each site, transect lines are drawn from the seaward margin of the forest at right angles to the edges of the mangrove forest. Plots are established at 10-metre intervals along a transect through the mangrove forest in each of the main forest types or zones. The method provides quantitative descriptions of the species composition, community structure and plant biomass of mangrove forests.
● Visual fish counts: visual census of fish abundance is an efficient and quantitative tool to evaluate fish abundance and diversity. A diver swims along transects laid on the bottom and counts fish observed within specified distances from the line. The type of fish counted can include all mobile species, target species for fisheries or indicator species.
● Record books: record books can be used by fishers to gather data on catch by gear type and fishing area. At a minimum, total catch per gear per fishing trip should be recorded.