Appendix
8.2 Strategy for Commoditizing Indigenous Fruit Trees
8.2.1 Importance and prioritization of indigenous fruit trees
To understand the importance and role of miombo indigenous fruit trees in the overall livelihood security of communities, several assessments were undertaken.
These included: (i) ethnobotanical surveys; (ii) species and priority ranking and ex ante impact assessment; (iii) the economics of production; and (iv) market assessments.
A region-wide ethnobotanical survey was carried out in Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique during 1989–1991, as the first step in understanding species diversity and the role of trees on farms, with respect to their establishment and management, location and arrangement, market opportunities, uses and functions in farmer fields (Karachi et al., 1991; Maghembe and Seyani, 1991; Kwesiga and Chisumpa, 1992). These surveys have identified more than 75 indigenous fruit trees that are an important resource for rural communities as sources of food and income. The fruits were collected from the forests and consumed locally and also traded in local and roadside markets. Fox and Young (1982) indicated that the fruits of more than 200 of the 1000 indigenous trees growing in southern Africa are edible.
Using the general principle developed by Franzel et al. (1996) for species prioritization, several other species prioritization surveys were triangulated to identify the species, their dynamics and ecological niches. In 1996–1997, farmers’ species preference was assessed in Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe (Kadzere et al., 1998). A total of 451 households were interviewed in four countries from 20 districts, comprising 128 households in Malawi, 70 in Tanzania, 135 in Zambia and 118 in Zimbabwe. The results showed that the most preferred species for domestication in the region were Uapaca kirkiana, Parinari curatellifolia, Strychnos cocculoides, Anisophyllea boehmii, Azanza garckeana,Flacourtia indica,Syzygium guineense,Strychnos pungens,Physalis peruviana and Uapaca nitida. The first three species were also identified as regional priority species based on their highest preference by users. The fourth in importance was Anisophyllea boehmii for Zambia, but it is limited to the northern and copperbelt provinces in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo and the area adjacent to Lake Malawi in Tanzania. Vitex mombassaewas the third most important in Tanzania, mainly popular in Tabora region. Similarly, Azanza garckeana was the fourth most important in Zimbabwe and Flacourtia indicawas the fourth most important for Malawi.
For the first time, detailed setting of priorities was undertaken in Mozambique, involving a survey of 156 households (76 female) in four provinces (Maputo, Gaza, Manica, Tete). The results showed that 60 indigenous fruit trees were consumed and traded by rural communities. Community members were able to process Adansonia digitata, Ziziphus mauritiana and Strychnos cocculoides into different products, such as beer, called ‘buadwa’, and flour for making porridge, called ‘bozo’. Ziziphus mauritiana and Sclerocarya birreawere also used for fodder. As regards indigenous knowledge, only 28% of the respondents had knowledge of processing. Planting of indigenous fruits as well as medicinal plants among farmers was not common because 97% of the the respondents said that they had no knowledge of how to grow them.
Based on these results, the regional spearhead species (species which drive the domestication programme) were identified as Uapaca kirkiana, Strychnos cocculoides and Sclerocarya birrea (Akinnifesi et al., 2006). The key reasons for selection of these species are that they are the species most preferred by
users, marketers and consumers, and that they have wide geographical distribution, consumption and marketing potential. As a rule it is expected that species to be selected for domestication should be widely consumed by the local population and the excess products should be marketable – selection is driven by consumption and markets. In this respect, although Sclerocarya birrea was not mentioned by the local communities in most countries as a priority fruit species (probably because it is rarely consumed fresh and needs processing), it was included as priority species because of its market potential.
The flesh of Sclerocarya birrea (marula) fruit contains 180 mg vitamin C per 100 g, surpassing orange, grapefruit, mango and lemon. The kernels are rich in food energy, containing almost 3000 kJ per 100 g. Moreover, Sclerocarya birreais probably the only miombo indigenous fruit species that has made it to the international market: the liqueur Amarula Cream, made from the fruit of Sclerocarya birrea by Distell Corporation in South Africa, is sold in 63 countries worldwide, with significant benefits to the rural communities (Ham, 2005). Emphasis on Parinari curatellifolia as a ‘spearhead’ species was reduced, despite its high preference (Franzel et al., Chapter 1, this volume), because it was less amenable to asexual propagation methods. Other country- specific or less valued species were considered as ‘shield’ species, i.e. species that are important for the on-farm maintenance of genetic biodiversity. Recent species priority-setting studies have shown not only that farmers are interested in indigenous fruits but also that they rate exotics, such as mangoes, citrus, avocado, banana and papaya, very highly (Franzel et al., Chapter 1, this volume). In most cases, mangoes and citrus ranked above indigenous fruit trees, andUapaca kirkiana,Strychnos cocculoidesand Ziziphus mauritianaare the only species mentioned among the top ten fruits in Malawi.
There is significant consumption in both rural and urban areas, with higher consumption in the rural areas and more trade in the urban and semi-urban areas. A similar trend in preferences by farmers was also shown by market consumers. In a market survey, Ramadhani (2002) asked consumers the following question: ‘If you have enough money for buying only seven types of fruit, including indigenous fruits, apples, mangoes and oranges, which ones are you likely to buy (first to seventh)?’ Although the question was already biased towards the named fruit species, it gave an indication of relative preference.
The responses were ranked as follows (most preferred species first): apple (Malus domestica), orange (Citrus sinensis), mango (Mangifera indica),Uapaca kirkiana, Ziziphus mauritiana, Azanza garckeana, Adansonia digitata and Strychnos cocculoides. The trend was the same for Uapaca kirkiana and Strychnos cocculoides buyers. However, when the results were recalculated, the trend changed slightly: U. kirkianaranked third instead of fourth and M. indica ranked fourth instead of third (Table 8.1). This shows that the method of analysis can influence the priority-setting results (Franzel et al., Chapter 1, this volume). Willingness to buy indigenous fruits showed the following order (most preferred species first): Uapaca kirkiana, Strychnos cocculoides, Azanza garckeana,Ziziphus mauritiana andAdansonia digitata.
In a market survey conducted in the southern region of Malawi, Mmangisa (2006) found that the consumer preferences were in the following order (most
F.K. Akinnifesi et al.
Table 8.1. Consumer preferences in Malawi and Zimbabwe for exotic and indigenous fruit trees.
Market survey, Market survey, central Household survey, Market survey,
southern Malawi (n= 315)a region of Malawi (n= na) Malawi (n= 223)b Zimbabwe (n= na)c
Weighted Weighted Weighted Weighted
Rank Species score Species score Species score Species score
1 Mangifera indica 734 Citrus sinensis 279 Mangifera indica 678 Malus domestica 661 2 Citrus sinensis 656 Mangifera indica 177 Persea americana 472 Citrus sinensis 626 3 Malus domestica 548 Psidium guajava 136 Citrus sinensis 291 Uapaca kirkiana 537 4 Uapaca kirkiana 424 Musa paradisiaca 116 Uapaca kirkiana 269 Mangifera indica 531 5 Ziziphus mauritiana 288 Carica papaya 115 Carica papaya 234 Ziziphus mauritiana 377 6 Adansonia digitata 281 Citrus reticulata 105 Musa paradisiaca 199 Azanza garckeana 337 7 Azanza garckeana 220 Citrus limon 73 Psidium guajava 198 Adansonia digitata 278 8 Strychnos cocculoides 178 Uapaca kirkiana 51 Casmiroa edulis 198 Strychnos cocculoides 242
9 – – Persea americana 47 Citrus reticulata 164 – –
10 – – Strychnos cocculoides 41 Ziziphus mauritiana 158 – –
aAdapted and recalculated from Mmangisa (2006).
bJ. Mhango and F.K. Akinnifesi (unpublished results, 2002).
cAdapted and recalculated from Ramadhani (2002).
preferred species first): Mangifera indica, Citrus sinensis (orange), Malus domestica, Uapaca kirkiana, Ziziphus mauritiana, Adansonia digitata, Azanza garckeana andStrychnos cocculoides (Table 8.1). The consumer survey results were different from earlier household or farmer surveys (Malembo et al., 1998) but similar to those of Ramadhani (2002). In the Malawi surveys, Uapaca kirkiana was the only indigenous fruit tree that featured in the top four, and Ziziphus mauritiana appeared in the top five most preferred fruits. Mangifera indica and Citrus sinensis were the two exotic fruits most preferred by consumers.
Market research using conjoint analysis showed that, for the fresh market, improvement effort should focus on quality by releasing trees with bigger fruits with brown colour and round appearance for Uapaca kirkiana (Mmangisa, 2006). Buyer characteristics and preference differences between males and females and according to education status reflect market segmentation potential.
The farmers also identified the need for improvement of tree precocity and fruit quality attributes. Farmers wanted improvements in fruit size (amount of edible pulp), sweeter taste, higher yields, improved shelf life, larger tree size, and pest and disease resistance (Maghembe et al., 1998). Fruit precocity was the major interest of most farmers, as they wanted quick returns for their crops, just as they did from exotics. The next most important trait for improvement was fruit size.
Since there are characters that can be manipulated by vegetative propagation and clonal selection, this activity received priority in the domestication programme.
However, because of the lack of knowledge about propagation techniques, seedling production and tree husbandry skills, uncertain markets and low prices, and because of the free availability of fruits from the forests, few farmers had planted indigenous fruits trees.