Tourism, Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas in Developing Nations 81
The Relationship between Communities and Protected Areas in Models
82 Tourism, Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas in Developing Nations Case study of a joint venture
In September 2004 the Iwokrama International Centre signed a contract with Community and Tourism Services (CATS) to manage the Iwokrama Canopy Walkway - the only tourism-oriented canopy walkway in the Guiana Shield. Iwokrama jointly with CATS manage the Canopy Walkway. CATS is a company formed by the Makushi community of Surama and two private sector businesses: Rock View Lodge and Wilderness Explorers.
The goal of linking Iwokrama with these organizations is to show how conservation-related partnerships can be financially successful and provide real benefits and ownership to local communities. The Canopy Walkway is a series of suspension bridges and observation decks of up to 30 meters in height and 154 meters in length. The facility's state-of-the-art construction allows trees to grow normally by using adjustable cables and braces throughout the support structure. The observation decks give visitors a new view on the mid- and upper-level forest canopy and allow wildlife to remain relatively free from human intrusion.
From IWORAMA web page and newsletter: www.iwokrama.org Issues to consider
There are a wide variety of issues related to governance and PA-based tourism ventures.
These include lack of training, capacity, capital, and rapid decision-making (which is often necessary in a competitive tourism environment); and conflicts at the local community level, such as jealousy, dominant members of the community, and challenges faced in terms of authority to make decisions.
The concept of community does not imply homogeneity and usually there are different interest groups and power bases within this social organization. The benefits of a tourism enterprise can accrue to some and not to others. With shared management, governance efforts can be hampered by a lack of transparency (on both sides). The motives of the parties are not necessarily clear, or subject to varying interpretations. Also, there must be systems in place to resolve conflicts and to deal with negotiations in which neither side is prepared to cede beyond a certain point. Shared governance also requires a long-term commitment and outlook. When working effectively, this model promotes long-term sustainability.
Economic benefits and livelihood security
Under the community-operated tourism model, the majority of economic benefits are kept at the community level because there is little economic leakage to outside parties; direct employment of community members (except in cases where specific, outside expertise is required); and satellite businesses can grow from tourism demand.
Increased livelihood security can result from community-operated tourism, especially if tourism is viewed as just one element of a diversified economy, and a supplement to other economic activities. Livelihood security can also be enhanced by tourists' appreciation of a pristine and healthy environment, which provides incentive for conservation and protection of important natural resources. However, there are costs associated with a community- operated tourism model, especially as the community may not have the capacity or technical training to efficiently manage their tourism product. This is especially difficult in terms of marketing and commercialization.
Tourism, Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas in Developing Nations 83 The community may receive much needed economic benefits from an NGO/private sector/government-run tourism model in protected areas. Benefits would come in the way of direct employment, indirect employment, and subsidies. However, the majority of economic benefits generally remain with the NGO, private sector operator or government agency (or, in the case of the government, are channeled into consolidated revenue).2
Broadly speaking, there is a lack of incentive on the part of the NGO, private sector or government agency to share economic resources. Livelihood security can in fact decrease if the community is not a major stakeholder or sharing in the benefits. Furthermore, if members or the community as a whole do not have (or feel) ownership of the natural resources in the park and its vicinity, they may decide there is nothing to lose by not managing and protecting resources sustainably. Given that lack of ownership indicates lack of power and authority over management decisions, the community in this situation is not in a position to protect the natural resources anyway. In addition, livelihood security can be threatened by members of the community that harbour resentment because they are receiving little direct benefits for the use of resources that they consider to be theirs by inherent right or traditional law.
Joint ventures offer a vehicle in which to share economic benefits, via profit sharing schemes; concessionaire arrangements (perhaps for the use of community lands); sharing equity; and establishment of hiring, purchasing, and capacity-building practices that support employment and development at the local level. While in some cases these agreements may appear to feed fewer direct benefits to communities, especially in the short term, a shared agreement brings more active stakeholders into the drive for success of the tourism operation. This can provide for enhanced revenue opportunities, especially when the private sector expertise and efficiency is coupled with local resources and supported by the local population's knowledge of the area.
Key issue
The equitable distribution of costs and benefits associated with tourism ventures in and around PAs is a critical issue. In any type of tourism enterprise model, such costs and benefits are rarely shared equitably. Even with the community-based model, equity within a particular community is difficult to achieve and can come with high social costs and disruption of internal social processes. The further a model is from genuine community participation, the more likely it is that a large share of positive affects will be accrued outside the local area whilst most of the negative impacts would be borne locally.
Cultural and spiritual educational values
Tourism (regardless of the model of operations and management) impacts upon cultural and spiritual elements of a community. Undoubtedly, the other factors such as livelihood security, economic benefit, and governance have an important role to play in maintaining and enhancing cultural, spiritual and educational values.
In many cases, cultural and educational values can be enhanced by curiosity, appreciation of these elements by tourists, and production and sale of traditional handicrafts, performances and knowledge sharing. Educational values are also promoted when the community perceives a need for specialized training, such as for guiding;
demonstration and interpretation of local resources; and as a future investment. Moreover,
84 Tourism, Indigenous and Local Communities and Protected Areas in Developing Nations educational values can be promoted to the tourists, who may gain some understanding of indigenous and local cultures. Albeit this is often quite superficial but at least helps sensitizing people to cultural diversity. Spiritual values are less clearly assisted by any type of tourism operation, as the entry of 'outsiders' may play a role in diminishing the importance of traditional lifestyles and beliefs. Moreover, it is critical to have a strong communal system in place to help minimize and/or control impacts on sacred sites and important traditional customs.
Key issue
The issue of the cultural and social sensitivity at the local level with regard to PA tourism ventures has been raised many times in the literature and received some attention during the Vth World Parks Congress. Cultural and social impact assessment (that also takes into account economic, livelihood and governance issues) is no doubt essential to the natural and cultural tourism sector regardless of what model is used, but is rarely undertaken thoroughly and professionally.