Hence, the concept of social responsibility, with its particular emphasis on local and indigenous populations gathered momentum in the 1990s to be a central issue in major tourism and conservation fora. It was embodied in key declarations such as the 1997 Manila Declaration on the Social Impact of Tourism and the outputs of the 2002 International Year of Ecotourism, the Quebec Declaration and the Cairns Charter.
The shift in values was reflected in and taken forward by various tourism leaders. The Pacific Asia Tourism Association (PATA) was a pioneer, setting up a Foundation which supported social and environmental projects; also of particular note were the British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow Awards set up in 1989, which identify best practice standards in environmental and social responsibility. The author was an Asia Pacific judge of the awards, which cover mainstream as well as nature tourism products, for five years in the mid-1990s. She observed first hand how important the issue of what tourism operators were contributing to their communities became in the eyes of judges. The fact that the World Travel and Tourism Council in 2005 became a co-sponsor the Tourism for Tomorrow Awards, is an indicator of how such values have become mainstream1.
In Durban, Costas Christ, Senior Director for Ecotourism at Conservation International summed up the cumulative vision when launching the report Tourism and Biodiversity:
Mapping Tourism's Global Footprint (UNEP, 2003):
By linking tourism development with biodiversity conservation and the well-being of local communities, we can develop strategies that both conserve Earth's most endangered ecosystems and help make a significant contribution to alleviating poverty.
However, this is a challenging goal especially when tourism to sensitive natural areas has grown by 100% between 1990 and 2000 (UNEP, 2003). Is it simply Utopian to talk of tourism that significantly contributes to both conservation and human well-being and development? Fortunately the answer appears to be that this combination is possible. There are good examples around the world of which the following case study of Turtle Island is but one example2. Certainly the vision has not only been pursued by particular destination products but by tour operators. Companies such as Earthwatch and ATG (Ad Terrae Gloriam) Oxford pursue businesses based on environmental conservation and sustainability goals, including community development. The Earthwatch Institute is an international organization which has 50,000 international members and which mobilizes fee-paying volunteers who work with 120 research scientists each year on field research projects around the world. Community development and conservation are seen as compatible and
104 Tourism as a Tool for Community-based Conservation and Development
essential goals and the organization is putting increasing emphasis on working with local communities3. ATG, an Oxford-based company, focuses on walking tours and involvement in conservation projects. It has a 65% 'buy local' policy and 10% of profits are channelled via a Trust into community-supported projects (ATG Oxford, undated).
These examples give us a glimpse of what 'good' looks like; however, the ideas are constantly evolving. From the social side of the agenda the Durban Congress recommended that, in the context of tourism associated with protected areas, the industry should work with others to develop tourism which (WCP Rec 5.12)4:
l.c Ensures tourism contributes to local economic development and poverty reduction through:
i. Support to local small and medium-size enterprises;
ii. Employment of local people;
iii. Purchasing of local goods and services; and
iv. Fair and equitable partnerships with local communities.
These recommendations principally identify economic benefits to communities but these can flow on to other social benefits, such as reducing emigration from rural communities - a major problem in the developing world, and providing greater access to health and education with all the multiple benefits which follow such improvements. Clearly social benefits can also cover much broader areas such as recognition of, and reinforcement of, important cultural values and skills.
Socio-cultural Benefits of Tourism
UNEP identifies the following positive socio-cultural benefits of tourism:
Tourism as a force for peace. It is argued that greater contact between cultures fosters respect and understanding.
Strengthening communities. Apart from economic benefits and a higher standard of living it is said that tourism can benefit communities by reviving community events and festivals.
Facilities developed for tourism can benefit residents. This benefit derives from tourism supplying infrastructure development such as roads, electricity, sewerage, hospitals and schools which might not have been introduced without the wealth generation of tourism.
Revaluation of culture and traditions. Benefits can also flow from the renewed value placed on traditional culture and traditions. Dance, music, ceremonies, art and crafts may be revived and passed on to new generations.
Tourism encourages civic involvement and pride. The acknowledgment of the value of traditional cultures by visitors can bring community pride, pride in culture and raise the status of elderly people who carry traditional knowledge (UNEP and WTO, 2005).
One well-known example which delivers many of these benefits comes from New Zealand where the Maori people of the South Island community of Kaikoura have reversed the serious disadvantage of their community by launching a successful whale watching
Tourism as a Tool for Community-based Conservation and Development 105 business. From a situation in 1987 where Maori unemployment was 92% and racial tension in the town was high it is claimed that up to 400 equivalent full time jobs have been generated and NZ$36 million brought to the region annually (Simmons and Fairweather, 1998). Yearly visitation has risen from less than 4,000 in 1987 to 100,000 in 1994 to 837,000 in 1998. The original Maori business 'Whale watch' stimulated other enterprises and as the major contributor to the towns rejuvenated economy the Ngai Tahu people are now held in esteem.
Another excellent example is the 2003 winner of the Tourism for Tomorrow Awards, the Bunaken National Marine Park in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Here many of the poor local people were engaged in highly damaging resource use such as cyanide poisoning and dynamiting reefs to harvest fish. Waste disposal and hygiene were also low. The park management set up a co-management initiative where 5 out of 15 board members came from the local community. The damaging practices have been stopped, the area has been cleaned up and entrance fees have been introduced of which 30% go into local community development. Alternative livelihoods are being explored and training provided by government and operators. One operator, British Airways, provides scholarships to allow local young adults to train in marine sciences (British Airways, undated).
Dilemmas for Tourism as a Community Development Tool
However, the 1998 publication Towards a Tourism Plan for Kaikoura (Simmons and Fairweather) also highlighted some of the dilemmas for tourism as a community development tool. The report made clear that despite the undoubted economic, cultural and social benefits brought by tourism there were also concerns. The age-old 'killing of the golden goose' issue still applied. The dramatic growth of the venture is threatening its core attraction of naturalness and authenticity. There are 'deepseated concerns over loss of control' of the scale and type of development. While Maori culture had undoubtedly had more exposure, at least some of the community were concerned about over- commercialization and modernization of culture and their cooption and misuse by non- Maori (Simmons and Fairweather, 1998, p. 18). Economic concerns included the rises in the cost of living, selective employment practices and an increase in the crime rate. There was also concern that it was easier for non-Maori and non-locals to raise the capital to start new businesses.
The issue of volume is always a critical one in tourism. It is a particularly critical one in the context of remote and comparatively poor communities with a strong culture and high environmental quality. As the world becomes more crowded and less natural these less crowded, remote and natural places are developing strong rarity value. However, while 'small is beautiful' for intrepid travellers, if the development is too small, too humble, the benefits for community development may not be significant. In addition, communities may not turn away from traditional exploitation of wildlife and the environment unless the incentive is adequate. Mulholland and Eagles (2002) have highlighted the problem of inadequate tourism development in Africa being a threat to biodiversity as communities which cannot extract adequate benefits from conservation through tourism may turn to other more extractive and damaging land uses. Yet if tourism is too successful and the development is too large, the very attractors - wildlife, naturalness or small friendly community ambience - can become lost.
106 Tourism as a Tool for Community-based Conservation and Development
Other cautions are necessary. In recent years we have seen the vulnerability of global tourism to pandemics like the SARs, war or terrorism graphically illustrated. At such times even developed nations suffer. Developing nations are especially vulnerable to these global risks and also very vulnerable to any perceptions of domestic danger, disease, civil unrest and war. For example the very substantial benefits which were flowing from tourism to see the mountain gorillas in Rwanda and Uganda have dramatically dropped since the massacres in 1994 and an attack on tourists in 1999 (Mulholland and Eagles, 2002).
Similarly Papua New Guinea undoubtedly has all the assets necessary for major tourism - unique exotic cultures, magnificent coastal, reef, mountain and rainforest landscapes and outstanding wildlife. Many tourist enterprises could be established in cooperation with community development goals. However, the country will never reap the benefits while there is a profound perception of danger from violence and crime.
From the communities' point of view the key issue would appear to be one of establishing and maintaining control. However, realistically for any community embracing tourism will mean offsets. The question is always going to be whether the participation benefits of employment, health and education opportunities will outweigh the impacts of sharing your region with outsiders. Unfortunately it is difficult for communities to anticipate fully what development will mean in the long run and, in the past, central agencies have been more eager for the short-term income than for long-term planning which might offset some of these concerns.
Conclusions
While tourism can undoubtedly be overstated as a panacea it must also be said that for many communities in developing nations there are not many other development alternatives which do not involve much greater impacts. The case study of Turtle Island, Fiji, at the end of this chapter, highlights many of the key issues. Certainly the co-location of a poor community with few employment prospects and poor infrastructure for health and education in a highly desirable tourism setting is repeated worldwide.
It is significant that this resort was not compelled by legislation to pursue high standards. This does suggest that the growing ethical consensus of 'what good looks like' plus the incentives of winning awards and perhaps free editorial exposure may be adequate to produce good practice in many cases. Clearly in this case the leadership of a committed individual in a senior position has also been a major factor. Having said this it would be complacent to presume this will always be the case and national sustainability strategies and legislative requirements are certainly an important part of the evolution of sustainable tourism practice.
It is worth highlighting several other aspects of the Turtle Island case study. The commitment to environmental restoration, including revegetation and erosion stabilization, of a degraded area rather than just the development of a naturally beautiful area is significant. Too often the 'easy option' is to establish tourism infrastructure in a pristine environment. Regardless of practices it will be impacted - it is far better practice to restore a degraded area in this manner.
The employment of a particular individual responsible for sustainability is also a model worth practising because of the accuracy of the saying that 'what is everyone's job is
Tourism as a Tool for Community-based Conservation and Development 107 nobody's job'. The practice of having a dedicated position with performance indicators and clear accountability is sound practice.
Another aspect of Turtle Island that is praiseworthy is the diversification of industries and employment beyond the resort. The backpacker establishments and furniture-making diversify skills and sources of income.
However, it is the involvement of the guests in understanding that they are in a host community and the subtle way in which guests are introduced to the community needs that is outstanding. Too often international travellers seek sun and sand and relaxation in exotic locations and every effort is made by the operator to shield the relaxing and affluent traveller from the harsh realities and deprivation of their host communities.
Here guests are clearly encouraged to have close contact with local people, understand, and identify with their needs. Without any heavy-handed appeals patronizing the locals this has over time led many to contribute in various ways to the well-being of the community.
The provision of a Foundation vehicle is an increasingly common and highly effective means of channelling goodwill and philanthropy.
The increasing number of such excellent models provide some optimism that the aspiration of the pioneers of ecotourism to see tourism deliver community development will be increasingly realized. However, the caveats which arise from Kaikoura suggest good planning, the acceptance of limits and constraints and the retention of community control are all critical ingredients of long-term commercial success and sustainability.