sometimes young plants in the field. The scale insects generally seen on clove include wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis), shield scale (Pulvinaria psidii), masked scale (Mycetaspis personata) and soft scale (Kilifia accuminata). The scales are generally seen clustered together on tender stems and lower surface of leaves. Scale insects feed on plant sap and cause yellow spots on leaves and wilting of shoots and the plants present a sickly appearance. Spraying monocrotophos (0.05%) is effective for the management of scale insects.
before they turn pink. At this stage, they are less than 2 cm has to be done witho
the trees. As a comm
do not allow th a
adverse effect on subsequent flowering.
of drying
ht brown in colour. W d when
n tree g d buds rs.
ialble as whole bu e from oil, clove stem
Clove buds, Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
opping also possible in an organized manner.
and mace is the dried Cropping system
It is a tree crop, it can be grown randomly in the farm or along the bunds or it may be intercropped in other plantations like coconut, areca nut or other fruit or avenue trees.
Sole cr
NUTMEG Introduction
Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) (Family: Myristicaceae) produces two separate spices, namely nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg is the dried kernel of the seed
aril surrounding it. Nutmeg is indigenous to Moluccas Islands (Indonesia). Over 50% of the worlds’ export of nutmeg and mace is from Indonesia. Grenada is the second largest exporter of nutmeg and mace in the world. In India, nutmeg is mainly cultivated in Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kottayam districts of Kerala and parts of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu.
Courtesy: IISR, Calicut Composition
he composition of dried nutmeg and mace are given below(Table 7.1) T
Table 7.1: Composition of dried nutmeg and mace
Content Nutmeg Mace
Moisture 14.3% 15.9%
Protein 7.5% 6.5%
Ether extraction (fat) 36.4% 24.4%
Carbohydrate 28.5% 47.8%
Fibre 11.6% 3.8%
Minerals 1.7% 1.6%
Calcium 0.12% 0.18%
Ph rus 0. %
Iron 0.46% 0.26%
Vita in B1 g/100g 35 mg/100 g
Vitamin B2 0.01 “ 0.42 “
Nia 40 “
ospho 14% 0.10
m 0.33 m 0.
cin 1.40 “ 1.
Nutmeg also contains a volatile oil (6-1 starch (14-24.25%), furfural (1.5%) and pectin (0.5-0.6%), e contains a volatile oil (4-15%), ylodextrin (25%).
Uses
Both nutmeg and ce ar s cond t and in cine. Nutmeg is a stimulant,
carminative, astrin nt an isiac. s a
constituent of preparations prescribed for dysentery, stomachache, flatulence, nausea, vomiting, malaria, rheuma atica a rly stages of leprosy. Excessive doses have
a narcotic effect, symptom rium a ileptic c 1-6 hours.
Mace is similarly d, it i ewed f sking foul breath.
Oil of nutmeg or mace is used for flavouring food products and liquor. It is used for
scenting soaps, acco ntal ery. It has been
Nutmeg butter is used as a mild external stimulant in ointments, hair lotions and plasters
and forms a useful application in cases of r p i n
perfumes for imparting a spicy odour an a e of soaps and candles.
Nutmeg butter is some ubstituted by m oth ristica spp. The pericarp or rind of the ripe fruit is locally used in pickles; it is also used in the preparation of jellies.
Alcoholic ex ts of how anti rial ac ity against Micrococcus var.
aureus. Aqueous decoctions are toxic to cockroaches. The volatile oil from leaf has weedicidal pr erties. d nting dentifrices, chewing gums and tobacco. It is not p on a commercial scale.
Area and production
f nutmeg and mace is from Indonesia. Grenada is the second largest exporter of nutmeg in the world. In India, nutmeg is mainly cultivated in Thrissur, Ernakulam and
akhs
6%),
Mac am
ma e used a imen medi
ge d aphrod It is used in tonics and electuaries and form tism, sci nd ea
s of deli s also ch
nd ep or ma
onvulsions appear after use
tob and de creams and also in perfum
recommended for the treatment of inflammations of bladder and urinary tract, the oil is somewhat toxic owing to the presence of myristicin and should be used with caution.
heumatism, d in the m
aralysis and spra nufactur
ns. It is used i
times s fats fro er My
trac nutmeg s -bacte tiv
op It may also be use
roduced for sce soaps,
Nutmeg is indigenous to Moluccas Islands (Indonesia). Over 50% of the worlds’ export o
and mace
Kottayam districts of Kerala and parts of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu. Nutmeg area and production is given below (Tanle 7.2 & 7.3). We import nutmeg 865 tonnes to the tune of Rs.1250.0 Lakhs and mace 525 tonnes to the value of Rs.1485.0 L
Table 7.2: Area and production of nutmeg over the years in India
Sl No Year Area (ha.) Production (tones) 1
2 3 4
1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98
4756 5345 6419 6592
2895 1471 2044 2102 5
6 7 8 9
1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03
6401 7110 7517 7849 8704
1603 1773 1919 1985 2 10
11 2004-05 10010 2530 2003-04 10010
184 2525
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut Table 7.3: Statewise area and production of clove in India during 2004-05
Sl No. State Area (‘000 ha.)
Production (‘000 tonnes)
Yield (kg ha ) -1
1 2 3 4
Kerala Karnataka Tamil Nadu
10.780 0.228 0.035
2.700 0.096 -
250 421 -
Islands
TOTAL/Mean
11.072 2.798 253
Andaman & Nicobar 0.029 0.002 69
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut Botany
Nutmeg belongs to the family Myristicaceae, with about 18 genera and 300 species.
yristica is the most primitive genus of the family and distributed from India and SE M
Asia to North Australia and the Pacific Islands. In this region 72 species are distributed.
M. fragrans is not known in its wild state. Three wild species of Myristica, viz., M.
malabarica, M. magnifica and M. dactyloides are found in the forests of South India.
Nutmeg is an evergreen, conical tree reaching a height of 4-10 metres. The tree is typically dioecious with male and female flowers on different trees. Occasionally male trees carrying a few female flowers or female trees carrying a few male flowers are observed. Hermaphrodite trees having bisexual flowers are also noticed rarely.
Inflorescence, axillary in umbellate cymes, males usually many-flowered, female 1-3 flowered. Flowers fragrant, creamy yellow in colour, waxy and fleshy with 3-lobed perianth. Male flowers are smaller than female flowers, the androecium is up to 7 mm long with 8-12 stamens, adnate to a column. Female flowers one cm long with superior sessile, one-celled ovary, 7 mm long, surmounted by a very short, two-lipped stigma.
us, broadly pyriform, yellow, smooth, 7-10 cm long, fleshy, splitting open
ropagation
iciently reliable. The only alternative is to dopt vegetative propagation either by top-working male plants or using budded or
Regular watering is necessary for good germination.
ermination may commence from about the 30th day and last up to 90 days after sowing.
s made in the stock and Fruit pendulo
into two halves when ripe, showing the ovoid 2-3 cm long dark brown shinning seed with hard seed-coat that is surrounded by a laciniate red aril attached to the base of the seed.
The seed of nutmeg is large, having ruminate endosperm. The somatic chromosome number of M. fragrans was reported to be 2n = 42. Though no improved variety has been developed, high-yielding nutmeg trees have been identified from various nutmeg growing areas and their progenies are being evaluated for yield.
Climate and soil
Nutmeg thrives well in warm humid conditions in locations with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and more. It grows well from sea level up to about 1300 m above mean sea level.
Areas with clay loam, sandy loam and red laterite soils are ideal for its growth. Both dry climate and water logged conditions are not suitable for nutmeg cultivation.
P
An important problem in nutmeg cultivation is the segregation of seedlings into male and female plants resulting in about 50% unproductive male trees. Though there have been several claims that sex could be determined at seedling stage on the basis of leaf form and venation, colour of young sprouts, vigour of seedlings and shape of calcium oxalate crystals on leaf epidermis, none of them is suff
a
grafted plants.
Epicotyl grafting: Nutmeg is commercially propagated through grafts. For raising rootstocks, naturally split healthy fruits are harvested during June-July. The seeds are extracted from the pericarp and sown immediately in sand beds of convenient length, 1 to 1.5 m width and 15 cm height.
G
About 20 day old sprouts are transplanted to polythene bags containing a mixture of soil, sand and cow dung (3:3:1).
The selected rootstock at the first leaf stage should have a thick stem (diameter of 0.5 cm or more) with sufficient length so as to enable to give a cut of 3 cm length. Scions with 2- 3 leaves, collected from high yielding trees can be used for grafting. The stock and scion should approximately have the same diameter. A ‘V’ shaped cut i
a tapered scion is fitted carefully into the cut. Bandaging at the grafted region may be done with polythene strips. They are then planted in polythene bags of 25 cm x 15 cm size containing potting mixture. The scion is covered with a polythene bag and kept in a cool shaded place protected from direct sunlight. After 1 month, the bags can be opened and those grafts showing sprouting of scions may be transplanted into polythene bags, containing a mixture of soil, sand and cow dung (3:3:1) and kept in shade for development. The polythene bandage covering the grafted portion can be removed after 3 months. During grafting, precautions should be taken to prevent wilting of scions and to complete the grafting as soon as possible. The grafts can be planted in the field after 12 months.
Cultivation
1 Varieties and planting material: As nutmeg is cross-pollinated, considerable erved in the cr t only for all aspects of growth
o for sex expression, size and shape of fruit and quantity and quality of
a population of 360 plants/ha. The dry recovery of nut and mace
rop. Nutmeg can best be grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens
nt years for a fully grown tree of 15 years or more. FYM is to be applied @ 25 g for 7-8 year old trees and 50 kg for grown up tree of 15 years.
variations are obs
and vigour, but als op. The plants differ no
mace. A good tree yields about 2000 fruits annually on an average, but the yield may vary from a few hundreds to about 10,000 fruits. IISR has released a high yielding variety IISR Viswashree which yields about 1000 fruits at the eight year of planting. An average yield of approximately 3122 kg dry nut (with shell) and 480 kg dry mace per hectare could be obtained with
of IISR Viswashree is 70 and 35%, respectively. The nut has 7.1% essential oil, 9.8%
oleoresin and 30.9% butter, while the mace has 7.1% essential oil and 13.8% oleoresin.
IISR has also identified a few elite lines such as A9-20, 22, 25, 69, 150, A4-12, 22, 52, A11-23, 70 as high yielders and grafts of these lines are produced for distribution.
Konkan Sugandha and Konkan Swad are other improved varieties.
2 Preparation of land and planting: Planting in the main field is done at the beginning of the rainy season. Pits of 0.75 m x 0.75 m x 0.75 m size are dug at a spacing of 9 m x 9 m and filled with organic manure and soil about 15 days earlier to planting. For planting plagiotropic grafts, a spacing of 5 m x 5 m has to be adopted. A male graft has to be planted for every 20 female grafts in the field.
The plants should be shaded to protect them from sun scorch during early stages.
Permanent shade trees are to be planted when the site is on hilly slopes and when nutmeg is grown as a monoc
that are more than 15 years old where shade conditions are ideal. Coconut gardens along river beds and adjoining areas are best suited for nutmeg cultivation. Irrigation is essential during summer months.
3 Manuring and fertiliser application: Manures are applied in shallow trenches or pits dug around the plants. The Kerala Agriculture Department recommends 20 g N (40g urea), 18 g P2O5 (110g superphosphate) and 50 g K2O (80 g muriate of potash) during the initial year and progressively increasing the dose to 500 g N (1090 g urea), 250 g P2O5
(1560 g superphosphate) and 1000 g K2O (1670 g muriate of potash) per year in subseque
k
IISR Viswashree – High yielding Nutmeg
Yield – 480 kg mace/ha
d or irregular manner causing blight in the
ced stages, the mace also rots emitting a foul smell.
the disease.
3122 nut kg dry nuts/ha High yielding high quality variety with compact plant type
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut Plant protection
iseases D
1 Die back: The disease is characterized by drying up of mature and immature branches from the tip downwards. Diplodia sp. and a few other fungi have been isolated from such trees. The infected branches should be cut and removed and the cut end pasted with
ordeaux mixture 1%.
B
2 Thread blight: Two types of blights are noticed in nutmeg. The first is a white thread light wherein fine white hyphae aggregate to form fungal threads that traverse along the b
stem underneath the leaves in a fan shape
affected portions. The dried up leaves with mycelium form a major source of inoculum for the spread of the disease. The disease is caused by Marasmius pulcherima.
The second type of blight is called horse hair blight. Fine black silky threads of the fungus form an irregular, loose network on the stems and leaves. These strands cause light of leaves and stems. However, these threads hold up the detached, dried leaves on b
the tree, giving the appearance of a birds nest, when viewed from a distance. This disease is caused by Marasmius equicrinus. Both the diseases are severe under heavy shade.
These diseases can be managed by adopting phytosanitation and shade regulation. In severely affected gardens, Bordeaux mixture 1% spraying may be undertaken in addition to cultural practices.
3 Fruit rot: Immature fruit split, fruit rot and fruit drop are serious in a majority of nutmeg gardens in Kerala. Immature fruit splitting and shedding are noticed in some trees without any apparent infection. In the case of fruit rot, the infection starts from the pedicel as dark lesions and gradually spreads to the fruit, causing brown discolouration of
e rind resulting in rotting. In advan th
Phytophthora sp. and Diplodia natalensis have been isolated from affected fruits.
However, the reasons for fruit rot could be both pathological and physiological. Bordeaux mixture 1% may be sprayed when the fruits are half mature to reduce the incidence of
4 Shot hole: The disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Necrotic spots develop on the lamina which are encircled by a chlorotic halo. In advanced stages the necrotic spots become brittle and fall off resulting in shot holes. A prophylactic spray with Bordeaux mixture 1% is effective against the disease.
Insect pests
1 Black scale: The black scale (Saissetia nigra) infests tender stems and leaves especially in the nursery and sometimes young plants in the field. The scales are clustered together and are black, oval and dome shaped. They feed on plant sap and severe infestations cause the shoots to wilt and dry.
cockerelli) is greyish white, flat and
Shield scale: The shield scale (Protopulvinaria mangiferae) is creamy brown and oval and occurs on tender leaves and in nursery seedlings. The pest infestation results in wilting of leave
ts mentioned above and other species that may also occur sporadically on
The female nutmeg tree starts fruiting from the sixth year, though the peak period is reached after 20 years. The fruits are ready for harvest in about 9 months after flowering.
The peak harvesting season is during June-August. The average yield of a good tree in full bearing is 3000 fruits between 15th to 30th year of age. The average weight of a single fruit is 60 g of which the seed weights 6-7 g, mace 3-4 g and the rest pericarp.
The fruits are ripe and ready for harvesting when the pericarp splits open. After harvest the outer fleshy portion is removed, and the mace is manually separated from the nut. The nut and mace are then dried separately in the sun. The scarlet coloured mace gradually becomes yellowish brown and brittle when drying is completed. The fleshy pericarp can be used for making pickles, jams
Mechanical drying: Freshly harvested mace can be blanched in water at 750C for 2 min retain the scarlet colour. This is followed by hot air drying at 550- 650 C which takes 3-
4 hours for drying to an be dried in 14-16
ot air technique.
le, nutmeg (rind) preserv eg(rind) preserve from d) candy, nutmeg (rind) sw ney and nutmeg (rind) powder.
e white scale (Pseudaulacaspis 2 White scale: Th
shaped like a fish scale and occurs clustered together on the lower surface of leaves especially in nursery seedlings. The pest infestation results in yellow streaks and spots on affected leaves and in severe infestations the leaves wilt and dry.
3
stems especially s and shoots.
The scale insec
nutmeg can be controlled by spraying monocrotophos 0.05%.
Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology
and jellies.
to
a moisture level of 8-10%. However nut c hours using h
ind) pick
Nutmeg (r e from slices, nutm
shreds, nutmeg(rin eet chut
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut Cropping system
Nutmeg is a tree spice; it may be grown randomly in the farm or planted along the bunds.
It can be a inter crop in other plantation crops like coconut, areca nut etc., It may be mixed with other tree spice crops like clove and cinnamon.
CINNAMON
Introduction
m verum) (Family: Lauraceae) is one of the earliest known spice Cinnamon (Cinnamomu
mainly cultivated for the dried inner bark of the tree. Cinnamon is a native of Sri Lanka and is cultivated in lower elevations of Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Courtesy R, Calicut
Composition : The composition of bark is given below (Table 8.1) Table 8.1. Composition of cinnamon bark
moisture 9.9%
protein 4.6%
fat (ether extract) 2.2%
fibre 20.3%
carbohydrates 59.5%
total ash 3.5%
calcium 1.6%
phosphorus 0.05%
iron 0.004%
sodium 0.0 potassium
vitamins ( ) B1 0.14
B2 0.21 C 39.8 A 175 I.U niacin 1.9
calorific va od energy) 355 per 100 g.
: IIS
1 % 0.4%
mg/100 g
lue (fo
Uses
Bark, wood, leave uds, fruits a ots are a ful in one or other way.
spice or condiment in the form of small pieces or powder. It is aromatic, astringent,
stimulant and in and also posse r n
vomiting. Cinnamon is used for flavouri pharmaceuticals, soaps and dental pr ns. Powdered amon is a constituent of chocolate preparations m de in Spain. Cinnamon is also , incense and perfumes.
2 Bark oil : Cinnama . It is used for flavouring
confectionary quors oa d dent aratians. It he cordial
and carminative properties of cinnaman w t its a ency and is loyed as adjuvant in stomachic tive medicine. As a powerful local stimulant, it is sometimes prescribed in gastrodiarrhoea, flatulent, colic and gastric debility. Cinnamon dulterant in clov . Medicinal oil is obtained from the fruits. Cinnaman wood
omestic production is of cassia worth of Rs .
ction of Cinnamon over the years in India
Area (ha.) Production
s, b flowers, nd ro ll use
1 Bark: Cinnamon bark primarily is one of the most popular spices in use in every house. It has a delicate fragrance and a warm agreeable taste. It is extensively used as a
carm ative sses the p
ng confectionary, liquors,operty of checki g nausea and
eparatio cinn
used in candy, gum a
n bark contains 0.5 to 1.0% volatile oil , pharmaceuticals, s
, li ps an al prep has t
ithou string emp
and carmina
leaf oil is used for perfuming saaps, flavouring sweets and confectionery. It is a cammon dulterant for the bark oil. The root bark and seeds also contain oils. Unripe fruits are a
used as a es
provides a soft timber for use as law-grade board wood.
Area and production
Cinnamon is mainly cultivated in Kannore (Kerala), South Kanara (Karnataka), Nilgiris, Lower Pulneys, Courtallam and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu). The d
about 1660 tonnes during 2004-05. During 2005-06, 9750 tonnes 2775 .0 Lakhs was imported to India
Table 8.2: Area and produ
Sl No Year
(tones) 1 1994-95
2 1995-96
714 655
300 364 3
4 5
1996-97 1997-98 1998-99
833 745 720
371 371 1176 6
7 8 9 10
1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04
718 701 727 739 757
1661 1658 1658 1659 1659