Debates on science and technology policies in India should be located in the context of decolonization and the alliance between scientific, political and industrial elites of the country which cultivated in the Scientific Policy Resolution (1958). The relationship between the ‘expert’ and the ‘citizen’ has changed and new forms of knowledge have to be considered.
However, the SPR (1958) failed to develop strong indigenous technological base and improve the quality of life of a large number of people (Krishna 2001). The draft
National Innovation Act (2001) promotes public-private partnership for innovation.
Government plays a crucial role in developing a science and technology policy as 75 per cent of the funding for research comes from the government institutions (Mandal et al.
2008). Technological solutions failed because policymakers did not go deeper into the problem in instituting the required mechanisms. It is important to note that problem is not just economical or technological rather social and political.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a significant change took place in the agricultural scenario of the country (Indian Patents Act 1970 and New Seed Policy in 1988). This change is marked by the dramatic increase in the number of input suppliers such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc. The university provided the trained human skills required for the industry. In the case of India, attainment of technological self-reliance is required which will improve the condition of the economically marginalized sections of society as well as help in the speedy development of backward regions. Technology must suit the local condition of the specific country and it should be cost effective. Two important things mentioned in the Technology Policy Statement (1983) were: first, use of obsolete technology should be resisted; importance was also given to basic research.
Secondly, policies which do not focus on the requirement or the need for Indian conditions should be discarded (www.ispepune.org.in/PDF%20ISSUE/.../Technology- Policy-Statement-January.pdf, accessed on 16 January 2016). Choice of technology must be clearly defined taking into account economic, social and cultural factors along with technological considerations. The main objective of Technology Policy Statement (1983) was to develop indigenous technology and efficient absorption and advancement of imported technology. The main objective can be further broken into various parts like reducing vulnerability in critical and strategic areas, maximum gains to the weaker sections of the society. Identification of obsolescence of technology in use and
modernization of both technology and equipment in use are important to reduce demand for energy particularly from non-renewable sources of energy. The Technology Policy Statement (1983) also gave importance in strengthening of technology base in newly emerging and frontier areas like biotechnology. The major thrusts were the call for substantial financial investment and strengthening of the linkages between various sectors such as educational, R&D establishments, industry and government machinery.
It is important to provide the incentive to inventors and direct their skills to the areas of urgency (www.ispepune.org.in/PDF%20ISSUE/.../Technology-Policy- Statement-January.pdf, accessed on 16 January 2016). The Technology Policy Statement (1983) gave importance to the development of indigenous technology and its use.
Interaction between academia and industry is required to translate know-how into technology, thereby promoting effective transfer of technology and share of knowledge.
This policy statement also encouraged setting up of R&D units in industry. A well- defined collaborative arrangement in research and development can help to acquire advantages of technological developments elsewhere. Technology can grow out of the study of science and its applications. With technological advancement, the gap between developed and developing countries has increased creating digital divide across the continents. Focus was also given to enhance in-house research and development in industry.
The Science and Technology Policy (2003) follows the footstep of Scientific Policy Resolution (1958) and Technology Policy Statement (1983). The main objective of the Science and Technology Policy (2003) is to cultivate scientific temper and fully integrate science and technology in national activities. It further emphasizes on strengthening of the IPR regime to commercialise domestic inventions at the earliest.
One of its key points is to provide full autonomy and flexibility leading to de-
bureaucratization of the university and institutions. This will fasten the collaborative networking among research institutions, universities, private R&D, etc. But, at present, a long-term reform is required to de-bureaucratize the institutions and universities in India.
Further, it emphasizes on increasing the investment by industry in R&D to make the contribution by private sectors adequate. Optimum utilization of infrastructure through networking is emphasized. The Science and Technology Policy (2003) suggests that a new mechanism for funding would be adopted to strengthen basic research in institutions. Further, it tries to strengthen the synergy between academia and industry by establishing technology transfer offices in academia to facilitate the transfer of technological know-how generated to industry. It also emphasizes on generation and management of intellectual property, protection of traditional knowledge, public awareness of science and technology, increase interaction between science and social sciences, facilitating increased international collaboration through various programmes and so on. The essence of any policy is its effective implementation.
According to the Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (2013), innovation occurs when science and technology-led solutions are successfully deployed in economy or society. Government expenditure on R&D should be increased many fold and this is impossible to achieve unless Indian industry take the lead to share at least 80 per cent of total R&D expenditure of the country which moves around 15-25 per cent since independence (Mandal et al. 2008). One of the important strategies envisaged in science and technology policy is to increase investments in gross R&D expenditure, currently which is 0.8% of its Gross Domestic Product (Government of India 2013a). This policy also emphasizes that this increase in R&D expenditure should come from industry as they have witnessed a significant increase in their sales turnover especially from 2006-10 (Government of India 2013a). New innovation policy uses the traditional approach to the
innovative development of the country, which includes a set of traditional measures: (a) increase spending on R&D; (b) promoting excellence and relevance in R&D; (c) participation in global R&D infrastructure.
Now, India can create its own technologies with extensive input of scientific origin. The share of world's knowledge is often reflected by means like publications, patents, etc. (Dahlman and Utz 2005). This policy states that India’s strength in basic research is recognized internationally. This policy also states that scientific collaboration is becoming a multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional practice since 2000. Basic research requires large equipment, expertise and human resources. Science and technology have become a source of economic dependence on the developed countries, which has led to the increased restrictions on sharing of knowledge, compliance with the international intellectual property rights regime and dictates of multinational corporations. The complex issues of paradigms of development since 2000 include the perceptions about GM crops by the scientific and farming communities. In this regard, the Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (2013) observed that S&T systems must undergo a paradigm shift from the current input-driven model to output-driven development strategy/model. An analysis indicates that the approach at the level of selection of policy instruments is limited to supporting “structural innovation” policy that only strengthen the importance of improving innovation capabilities of the firm and the institutional changes to strengthening them. It means other important sectors are ignored by the Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (2013). Focus was stressed on policies to strengthen innovation policies that will generate new technology and knowledge. The policy rationale perspective is limited to: (a) facilitating the private sector investment in R&D; (b) treating multi-stakeholder participation in the Indian R&D system; (c) treating R&D in the private sector at par with public institutions depending
upon the availability of funds; (d) benchmarking of R&D funding mechanism and patterns globally; (e) modifying the intellectual property rights policy to provide for space for rights of social goods when supported by public funds and co-sharing of IPR generated under public-private partnerships; (f) provide incentive for commercialization of innovation (Government of India 2013b).